J 


ELEMENTAKY  PRIXCIPLES  OF 
AGKICULTURE 


"Nature  Study  is  learning  those  things  in  nature 
which  are  best  worth  knowing,  to  the  end  of  doing 
those    things    that    make    hfe    most    worth    living." 

— Hodge. 

Old-time  common  sense  and  the  close,  analytical 
thought  of  modern  times  teach  that  the  elementary 
school  should  assist  both  boys  and  girls,  according  to 
their  needs,  to  fit  themselves,  practically  as  well  as 
intellectually,  for  the  work  of  life. 


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OUR  BIRD  FRIENDS 

What  do  they  eat?    See  Figs.  119  and  120. 
Red  Bird  or  Cardinal  (male  and  female),  Bullock's  Oriole,  Scissor  Tailed 
Fly  Catcher,  and  Meadow  Lark. 


LIBRARY 

COLLEGE  OF 

AGRICULTURE 

Berkeley.  Cal. 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES 
OF  AGRICULTURE 


A  TEXT  BOOK 
FOR  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


3i 
A.  M.  FERGUSON,  M.Sc. 

PROPRIETOR   FERGUSON'S   SEED-BREEDINQ    FARMS 
AND 

L.  L.  LEWIS,  M.Sc,  D.V.M. 

PK(JFE880R  VETERINARY  SCIENCE,  A.  AND   M.  COLLEGE  OF  OKLAHOMA 


FOURTH  EDITION 


FERGUSON    PUBLISHING    COMPANY 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS,  and  SHERMAN,  TEXAS 


jCopyright,  June,  1908 
CopYRiGHT,  May,  1913 
By  A.'^.  FERGUSON 

First  Edition,  June.  1908 
Second  Revised  Edition,  January,  1909 

Reprinted,  May  and  August,  1909 

Reprinted,  March  and  September,  1910 

Third  Revised  Edition,  April,  1911 

Reprinted,  October,  1912 
Fourth  Revised  Edition    May,  1913 


AGRIC.  DEPT. 


PKEFACE  TO  FOURTH  EDITION 

It  is  true  that,  ''Civilization  begins  and  ends  with  the 
plow/'  as  we  were  told  by  Alexander  the  Great.  It  is  also 
true  that,  the  progress  of  nations  (heretofore  and  here- 
after) may  be  measured  by  the  degree  of  intelligence  that 
directs  the  use  of  their  plows.  It  is  no  new  doctrine  that 
intelligence  aids  industry.  It  is,  however,  a  comparative- 
ly new  application  for  the  schools  to  aid  Agriculture, 
which  is  the  fundamental  support  of  all  civilization. 
Agriculture  is  the  most  backward  element  in  American 
life  to-day,  and  our  schools  are  meeting  a  plain  duty  in 
correcting  the  mistakes  of  the  past. 

Agriculture  is  now  established  as  a  grammar  grade 
subject,  not  only  as  a  vocational  study  for  communities 
that  are  essentially  agricultural,  but  also  as  a  cultural 
study  for  all  children  who  live  in  a  nation  whose  industries 
and  traditions  are  so  closely  related  to  Agriculture  as  our 
own.  We  study  language  for  its  utility  in  exchanging 
ideas  with  our  fellows;  we  study  history  and  civics  for 
guidance  in  the  discharge  of  our  social  relations,  and 
likewise  other  subjects  for  their  usefulness.  The  new, 
re-directed  spirit  of  education  recognizes  that  the  greatest 
culture  is  that  knowledge  which  makes  us  master  of  the 
materials  of  our  environment.  We  may  be  scholarly 
about  many  things,  but  uncultured  if  ignorant  of  the 
ideas  that  belong  to  our  country 's  greatest  industry. 

The  last  twenty  years  have  brought  forth  many  sug- 
gestions concerning  the  scope,  the  materials,  and  the  spirit 
that  shall  enter  into  the  elementary  study  of  Agriculture. 
The  fundamental  theory  in  this  text  has  been  to  supply 

(V) 

3G1290 


vi  Preface 

those  ideas  that  will  satisfy  the  natural  interest  of  all 
children  about  the  whys  of  common  farm  conditions,  and 
the  influence  of  these  conditions  on  the  success  of  the  in- 
dividual farmer  and  the  nation. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  authors  feel  a  double  pleasure  in  acknowledging 
the  assistance  that  has  made  possible  the  practical 
school-room  success  of  the  earlier  editions  of  this  text. 
To  \\rite  an  elementary  text  in  language  that  is  simple 
and  direct;  free  from  provincial  color  and  accurate  without 
being  technical;  to  satisfy  the  pupil,  the  grade  teacher, 
and  the  supervisor,  as  well  as  the  practical  farmer  and  a 
long  list  of  specialists  who  have  a  word  to  say  about  text 
books  on  Agriculture; —  for  reasonable  success  in  meeting 
these  varied  points  of  view,  we  owe  much  to  the  sym- 
pathetic counsel  and  patient  criticism  of  many  trained 
minds.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  acknowledge  valuable  assist- 
ance from: 

Miss  Dora  Schnell,  Miss  Ada  Henderson,  and  many 
other  successful  primary  and  grade  teachers.  On  the 
professional  and  technical  points,  valuable  suggestions 
and  criticisms  have  been  given  by  Pres.  J.  H.  Connell  of 
the  Oklahoma  A.  &  M.  College;  Prof.  T.  V.  Munson,  an 
accomplished  and  distinguished  horticulturist,  recently 
deceased;  Prof.  A.  M.  TenEyck  of  the  Iowa  State  College; 
Prof.  V.  M.  Shoesmith,  and  Prof.  Frank  Spragg  of  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College;  Dr.  E.  S.  Tucker  of  the 
University  of  Louisana;  Prof.  Wilmon  Newell  of  the  A. 
&  M.  College  of  Texas;  Prof.  Carl  Hartman  of  the 
University  of  Texas,  and  Prof.  D.  N.  Barrow,  Editor  of 
Texas  Farmer. 

The  following  specialists  in  the  United  States  Depart- 


Preface  vii 

ment  of  Agriculture  have  likewise  given  many  valuable 
suggestions  while  vising  the  manuscript:  Dr.  W.  D. 
Hunter,  and  Dr.  W.  D.  Pierce  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomol- 
ogy; Dr.  F.  J.  Cameron,  and  Prof.  Tom  Carter  of  the  Bur- 
eau of  Soils;  Prof.  C.  R.  Ball,  Prof.  S.  H.  Hastings,  Prof. 
W.  H.  Long,  Prof.  C.  W.  Warburton,  and  Prof.  D.  A. 
Saunders  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry;  to  Prof.  A.  D. 
McNair  for  assistance  on  the  chapter  on  Legumes;  and 
to  Dr.  David  Griffith  for  the  chapter  on  Pastures,  both  of 
the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department 'of  Agri- 
culture; also  to  Prof.  A.  H.  Leidigh  of  the  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural College  for  the  chapter  on  Sorghums,  and  to 
Prof.  J.  C.  Whitten  and  Dr.  W.  L.  Howard  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Horticulture,  University  of  Missouri,  and  Prof. 
J.  L.  Lloyd  of  the  University  of  Illinois  for  assistance 
on  the  chapters  on  Garden  and  Orchard  Crops. 

Special  acknowledgment  is  due  Prof.  J.  B.  Davidson, 
of  Iowa  State  College  for  the  chapter  on  Farm  Machinery. 
Illustrations  have  been  selected  for  their  accuracy, 
suggestiveness  and  educational  value.  Acknowledgment 
is  due  to  many  officials  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  to  the  Kansas  Agricultural  College  for 
the  use  of  a  number  of  illustrations  by  Prof.  A.  M. 
TenEyck.  Other  acknowledgments  are  made  in  connec- 
tion with  particular  illustrations. 

TO  TEACHERS 
In  using  the  text  it  is  recommended  that  the  course 
extend  troughout  the  session  and  that  the  order  of  the 
text  be  followed  up  to  page  117.  Suggestions  for  seasonal 
projects  are  given  in  chapter  35,  paragraphs  133,  213a, 
and  in  the  two  last  chapters. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface    v 

Agricultural  Literature x 

PART   I 

CHAPTER 

I.  Agriculture  and  Knowledge 1 

II.  Plants  and  Their  Food 4 

III.  Structure  of  Seeds 9 

IV.  How  Seedlings  Get  Established 12 

V.  Plant  Substance 24 

VI.  How  the  Plant  Increases  Its  Substance        ...  28 

VII.  The  Water  in  Plants 32 

VIII.  Structure  and  Work  of  Stems 34 

IX.  The  Plant  as  Related  to  the  Soil 40 

X.  Soils  and  Soil  Management 52 

XI.  Water  in  the  Soil 67 

XII.  Relation  of  the  Plant  to  the  Chemical  Composition 

of  the  Soil 77 

XIII.  Improving  the  Chemical  Nature  of  the  Soil      .      .  83 

XIV.  Productiveness  of  Soils 95 

XV.  Rotation  of  Crops 100 

XVI.  Relations  of  Plants  above  Ground 103 

XVII.  The  Office  of  Flowers         Ill 

XVIII.  Pruning  and  Training  of  Plants 118 

XIX.  Propagation  of  Plants 129 

XX.  Improving  Plants  and  Seeds         139 

XXI.  Fungus  Diseases  of  Plants 148 

XXII.  Insects  of  the  Farm 155 

XXIII.  Some  Special  Injurious  Insects 167 

XXIV.  Useful  Insects 176 

XXV.  Wild  Birds  and  Other  Insect-eating  Animals     .      .  180 

(viii) 


Table  of  Contents  ix 

PART  II.    ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXVI.  Animal  Husbandry 189 

XXVII.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle 195 

XXVIII.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses 204 

XXIX.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Hogs 216 

XXX.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep  and  Goats   .      .      .      .220 

XXXI.  Farm  Poultry 224 

XXXII.  Nutrition  of  the  Animal  Body 235 

XXXIII.  Farm  Dairying 247 

PART  III.     SPECIAL  TOPICS 

XXXIV.  The  Home  Lot 258 

XXXV.  School  Gardens 264 

XXXVI.  Forestry 268 

XXXVII.  Farm  Machinery 273 

XXXVIII.  Public  Highways 280 

PART  IV.     CROPS 

XXXIX.  Selection  of  Farm  Crops 292 

XL.  Pastures 296 

XLI.  Legumes 300 

XLII.  Grain  Crops 305 

XLIII.  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley,  Rice  and  Rye        .      .      .      .314 

XLIV.  Corn 318 

XLV.  Sorghums 330 

XLVI.  Cotton 335 

XLVII.  Garden  Crops 347 

XLVIII.  Orchard  Crops 356 

APPENDIX 

A.  Books  on  Agriculture 367 

B.  Insecticides  and  Fungicides 368 

C.  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs 372 

D.  Per  cent  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Stock  Feeds       .      .      .  374 

E.  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents  in  Stock  Feeds  .      .  375 

F.  Standard  Feeding  Rations  by  Weight 376 

G.  Standard  Feeding  Rations  per  Head 377 

H.  Annual  Rainfall  in  the  United  States 378 

I.  Glossary 379 

Index 388 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface    v 

Agricultural  Literature x 

PART   I 

CHAPTER 

I.  Agriculture  and  Knowledge 1 

II.  Plants  and  Their  Food 4 

III.  Structure  of  Seeds 9 

IV.  How  Seedlings  Get  Established 12 

V.  Plant  Substance 24 

VI.  How  the  Plant  Increases  Its  Substance        ...  28 

VII.  The  Water  in  Plants 32 

VIII.  Structure  and  Work  of  Stems 34 

IX.  The  Plant  as  Related  to  the  Soil 40 

X.  Soils  and  Soil  Management 52 

XI.  Water  in  the  Soil 67 

XII.  Relation  of  the  Plant  to  the  Chemical  Composition 

of  the  Soil 77 

XIII.  Improving  the  Chemical  Nature  of  the  Soil      .      .  83 

XIV.  Productiveness  of  Soils 95 

XV.  Rotation  of  Crops 100 

XVI.  Relations  of  Plants  above  Ground 103 

XVII.  The  Office  of  Flowers         Ill 

XVIII.  Pruning  and  Training  of  Plants 118 

XIX.  Propagation  of  Plants 129 

XX.  Improving  Plants  and  Seeds         139 

XXI.  Fungus  Diseases  of  Plants 148 

XXII.  Insects  of  the  Farm 155 

XXIII.  Some  Special  Injurious  Insects 167 

XXIV.  Useful  Insects 176 

XXV.  Wild  Birds  and  Other  Insect-eating  Animals     .      .  180 

(viii) 


Table  of  Contents  ix 

PART  II.    ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTEK  PAGE 

XXVI.  Animal  Husbandry 189 

XXVII.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle 195 

XXVIII.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses 204 

XXIX.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Hogs 216 

XXX.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep  and  Goats   .      .      .      .220 

XXXI.  Farm  Poultry 224 

XXXII.  Nutrition  of  the  Animal  Body 235 

XXXIII.  Farm  Dairying 247 

PART  III.     SPECIAL  TOPICS 

XXXIV.  The  Home  Lot 258 

XXXV.  School  Gardens 264 

XXXVI.  Forestry 268 

XXXVII.  Farm  Machinery 273 

XXXVIII.  Public  Highways 280 

PART   IV.     CROPS 

XXXIX.  Selection  of  Farm  Crops 292 

XL.  Pastures 296 

XLI.  Legumes 300 

XLII.  Grain  Crops 305 

XLIII.  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley,  Rice  and  Rye        .      .      .      .314 

XLIV.  Corn 318 

XLV.  Sorghums 330 

XLVI.  Cotton 335 

XLVII.  Garden  Crops 347 

XLVIII.  Orchard  Crops 356 

APPENDIX 

A.  Books  on  Agriculture 367 

B.  Insecticides  and  Fungicides 368 

C.  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs 372 

D.  Per  cent  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Stock  Feeds       .      .      .  374 

E.  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents  in  Stock  Feeds  .      .  375 

F.  Standard  Feeding  Rations  by  Weight 376 

G.  Standard  Feeding  Rations  per  Head 377 

H.  Annual  Rainfall  in  the  United  States 378 

I.  Glossary 379 

Index 388 


AGRICULTURAL  LITERATURE 

Agriculture  is  older  than  civilization,  yet  it  is  the 
last  large  field  of  human  endeavor  to  develop  a  litera- 
ture that  is  distinctly  its  own,  and  the  last  to  find  a 
place  in  our  system  of  education. 

In  spite  of  this  comparative  newness,  our  publish- 
ing houses  now  issue  books  on  special  and  general 
agriculture  that  compare  favorably  with  the  best  in 
other  lines  of  thought.  Every  school  library  should 
have  a  number  of  the  more  recent  special  treatises  on 
the  important  phases  of  agriculture.  A  suggestive  list 
is  given  in  Appendix  A. 

In  addition  to  the  volumes  published  by  the 
regular  book  trade,  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  several  state  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  publish,  for  free  distribution,  bulletins 
giving  accounts  of  investigations  on  the  varied  prob- 
lems of  agricultural  science  and  practice. 

Special  attention  is  called  to  the  series  of  "  Farm- 
ers' Bulletins,"  issued  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  They  are  sent 
to  all  parties  on  request.  This  series  now  includes  a 
special  bulletin  on  all  the  leading  field,  orchard  and 
garden  crops,  and  the  many  classes  of  farm  animals. 
These  latter  bulletins  should  be  used  regularly  for  sup- 
plementary readings  in  common  school  agriculture. 

Many  states  have  a  state  department  of  agricul- 
ture that  publish  bulletins  dealing  with  agriculture. 
With  a  few  exceptions,  all  government  publications  are 
sent  free.  Application  should  be  made  to  the  Direc- 
tors of  the  state  experiment  stations. 


« 


ELEMENTARY  PRmCIPLES 
OF  AGRICULTURE 


PART  I 

CHAPTER  I 

AGRICULTURE  AND   KNOWLEDGE 

1.  Agriculture  and  Life.  ''The  object  of  agriculture,'* 
says  Professor  Johnson,  ''  is  the  production  of  certain 
plants  and  certain  animals  which  are  employed  to  feed, 
clothe,  and  otherwise  serve  the  human  race."  Every 
American  should  understand  the  elementary  principles 
of  agriculture,  because  it  is  our  country's  most  impor- 
tant industry.  Whatever  materially  affects  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  farms  and  ranches  also  affects  the  trades 
and  professions,  for  the  latter  are  the  chief  consumers 
of  agricultural  products. 

2.  The  Three  Phases  of  Agriculture.  There  are  three 
phases  of  agriculture:  first,  the  business  phase;  second, 
the  arts  or  crafts  phase;  and  third,  the  scientific  phase. 
Agriculture,  as  a  means  of  making  a  living,  is  a  business. 
Growing  crops  and  stocky  and  the  manufacturing  of 
these  raw  materials  into  finished  products,  are  neces- 
sary arts,  based  on  a  knowledge  of  the  working  of  natu- 
ral forces.  The  giving  of  milk  by  a  cow,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  a  peach  from  a  flower,  are  natural  phenomena. 
Increasing  the  flow  of  milk,  and  increasing  the  fruitful- 
ness  of  a  plant,   are  useful  arts.    Doing  these  things 

A  (1) 


2  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

for  profit  is  a  matter  of  business.  Knowing  how  these 
things  are  done,  how  to  control  the  natural  forces  so 
that  certain  results  are  secured,  are  matters  of  knowl- 
edge. When  all  this  knowledge  is  systematically  ar- 
ranged, we  have  a  science.  As  it  is  about  agriculture, 
it  is  agricultural  science. 

3.  Natural  Science  is  organized  knowledge  of  the 
phenomena  of  natural  objects.  The  soil,  the  plants  and 
the  animals  with  which  the  farmer  works  are  natural 
objects.  A  knowledge  of  the  science  of  the  natural  ob- 
jects of  the  farm  serves  to  guide  the  farmer  in  the 
practice  of  his  craft.  Knowing  how  plants  grow  is  not 
only  interesting,  but  also  useful  information  to  persona 
who  grow  plants.  The  same  is  true  of  animals.  To  know 
something  of  how  plants  grow  is  to  have  a  knowledge 
of  botany.  To  know  how  to  grow  plants  is  to  have 
some  knowledge  of  agriculture. 

4.  A  Knowledge  of  the  Science  of  Agriculture  is  de- 
sirable. Ability  to  work  amounts  to  Uttle  without  the 
application  of  knowledge.  We  may  know  how,  or  possess 
the  skill  to  do  a  certain  kind  of  work,  without  knowing 
the  reason  for  doing  it  in  that  particular  way.  A  man 
may  guide  a  team  and  hold  a  plow  so  that  it  runs 
smoothly,  and  yet  not  know  why,  or  when,  or  how  to 
plow,  to  secure  a  desired  result.  Hence,  we  have  an  art 
of  doing  things,  and  a  science  of  why,  when  and  how. 
The  master  workman  must  possess  the  scientific  knowl- 
edge that  underlies  his  trade. 

6.  How  a  Knowledge  of  Agriculture  is  Gained.  Knowl- 
edge comes  by  exact  observation  and  correct  thinking. 
Observations  are  sometimes  incorrect  or  incomplete. 
As  a  basis  for  correct  thinking,  we  must  have  accurate 
observation.   Books  are  merely  the  printed  statement;* 


Agriculture  and  Knowledge  3 

of  what  others  have  observed  and  thought.  Hence, 
book  information  is  not  always  in  accord  with  the 
actual  conditions;  and,  by  placing  too  much  confidence 
in  the  printed  page,  one  is  sometimes  misled.  An  ancient 
writer  stated  that  a  cow  had  eight  upper  front  teeth. 
For  centuries  afterward,  this  statement  was  believed 
and  repeated  in  many  books,  until  one  more  careful 
looked  into  a  cow's  mouth  and  found,  not  eight,  but 
no  upper  front  teeth.  Practical  farmers,  teachers,  and 
books  may  guide  us  as  to  how  best  to  find  out,  but  we 
must  use  our  own  hands,  eyes,  and  minds  to  acquire 
knowledge,  if  we  wish  to  really  know.  In  writing  out 
our  observations,  we  must  be  careful  to  distinguish 
betw^een  what  is  observed  and  the  conclusions  which 
we  make  from  our  observations. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  Agriculture?  2.  Why  should  Americans 
particularly  study  Agriculture?  3.  What  are  the  three  phases  of 
Agriculture?  Distinguish  between  these  by  familiar  examples. 
4.  What  is  a  Natural  Science?  5.  How  does  Botany  differ  from 
the  Science  of  Agriculture?  6.  In  what  way  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
Science  of  Agriculture  desirable?  7.  How  may  this  knowledge  be 
gained? 


CHAPTER  II 
PLANTS  AND  THEIR  FOOD 

6.  Environment  is  a  general  term  for  all  th6  condi- 
tions that  surround  an  animal  or  plant,  such  as  air, 
soil,  water,  light,  temperature,  other  plants  or  animals, 
etc. 

7.  Culture  seeks  to  make  the  environment  favorable 
to  the  particular  plant  or  animal,  or  to  produce  plants 
and  animals  better  adapted  to  the  environment.  The 
most  important  conditions  are  those  that  affect  the 
supply  of  the  substances  used  for  food  by  the  plant  or 
animal.  To  encourage  the  growth  of,  say,  a  corn  plant, 
we  destroy  the  weeds  that  would  injure  it,  and  cultivate 
the  ground  to  make  a  better  home  for  its  roots.  To 
intelligently  cultivate  plants,  we  must  first  learn  how 
plants  grow  and  get  their  food. 

8.  Not  All  Plants  Use  the  Same  Kinds  of  Food.  Not  all 
plants  are  Uke  those  famiUar  to  us,  as  trees,  herbs,  etc. 
Possibly  we  do  not  often  think  of  the  yeast  put  in  the 
dough  to  make  the  bread  "  rise/'  or  the  "  green  scum  " 
on  the  ponds,  as  plants, — yet  they  are,  though  very  simple 
ones.  The  yeast  which  we  get  from  the  grocery  store 
as  "  compressed  yeast  "  is  only  a  mass  of  millions  of 
very  small  plants,  each  one  composed  of  a  tiny  mass  of 
living  substance,  called  protoplasm.^  This  mass  of 
protoplasm  is  surrounded  by  a  delicate  membrane, 
called  a  cell-wall.    These  plants  are  so  small  that  they 

*Protoplasm  (meaning  primitive  substance)  is  the  older  term  for  that  part 
of  the  ceil  having  the  property  of  life  Some  writers  prefer  the  term  bioplasm 
(meaning  living  substance). 

(4) 


Plants  and  Their  Food 


a,  sur- 
f  ull  -  grown 


can  not  be  seen  by  the  naked  ^e.  When  greatly  magni- 
fied by  the  microscope,  their  simple  structure  is  plainly 
seen.  Each  plant  is  only  a  single  cell,  such  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2  a  and  b.  Each  one  of 
these  plants,  or  cells,  has  the 
power  to  form  daughter  plants, 
that  soon  become  independent. 
9.  Fungi.  Yeast  belongs  to 
a  class  of  plants  called  fungi 
(fun-gi — singular,fungus).  These 
fungus  plants  are  very  small, 
but  they  are  very  important. 
The  bacteria  causing  the  nodules 
on  peas  and  clover  plants  are 
very  beneficial.  Some  cause  dis- 
ease that  destroys  other  plants, 
like  the  rust  on  oats,  mildew  on 
roses  and  grapes,  or  the  rots  of 
fruits  and  roots.  Other  kinds  of 
these  simple  plants  cause  disease  in  animals,  as  chol- 
era in  swine  and  chickens.  Their  food  consists  of  the 
substances  of  other  plants,  or  of  animals,  like  starch, 
sugars,  fat,  lean 
meat,  white  of  ^^  /f  ^  ^ 
egg,  etc.  In  order 
to  become  famil- 
iar with  the  con- 
ditions which 
favor  the  growth 
of  yeast-like 
plants,  we  shall 
set  up  the  follow- 

,  Fig.  3.  Figures  of  various  kinds  of  Bacteria.  After 

mg  experiment:  ^ohn  and  Sacha.   Very  highly  magnified. 


Fig.  2.  Yeast  Colonies 
face  view  of  full 
plants  with  young  branches 
or  buds.  6,  view  of  similar 
colonies  seen  as  though  cut 
across.  Magnified  about  750 
times. 


6 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


9a.  Food  Materials  for  Yeast.  Secure  two  large  bottles  or  fruit 
jars,  and  fill  both  about  two-thirds  full  of  clear  well-water.  To  one 
jar  add  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  and  about  as  much  of  the  white  of 
an  egg.  See  that  both  are  completely  dissolved.  Now  add  to  both 
jars  small  lumps  of  the  ordinary  "compressed  yeast,"  or  dry  yeast 
cake,  secured  from  the  bakery.  Whichever  is  used,  see  that  it  is 
well  dissolved  in  a  spoonful  of  water  before  adding  to  the  jar.  Stir 
well  and  notice  that  the  liquids  are  clear,  or  nearly  so.  Set  aside  in 
a  warm  place,  but  not  in  strong  light,  and  observe  once  or  twice 
a  day  for  several  days.  The  liquid  soon  becomes  cloudy  in  the  jar 
to  which  the  food  was  added,  but  not  in  the  jar  of  water.  The  cloudy 
effects  are  due  to  the  large  number  of  yeast  plants  formed.  The 
sugar  and  egg  substance  furnish  the  nourishment  for  their  growth. 
They  do  not  multiply  in  the  pure  water.  Yeast  grows  in  the  bread 
dough  because  the  dough  contains  all  the  substances  needed  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  yeast  plants.  In  the  ''dry  yeast"  these 
tiny  cells  are  in  a  dormant  condition,  like  seeds. 


10.  The  Green  "Pond  Scums"  belong  to  a  class  of 
plants  called  algae  (singular,  alga).  There  are  many  kinds, 
and  nearly  all  of  them  are  very 
simple,  being  composed  of  single 
cells,  or  small  masses  of  cells. 
Algse  contain  a  green  coloring 
matter,  which  yeast-like  plants 
do  not  have.  We  shall  later  learn 
something  of  the  value  of  this 
green  coloring  matter  to  the 
plant. 

11.  The  Food  Materials  of 
Green  Plants  are  made  from 
water^  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  the 
simple  minerals  dissolved  in  the 
natural  waters  of  the  soil.  These 
are  combined  to  make  all  the  substances  necessary  for 
the  nourishment  and  growth  of  their  cells,    They  must 


Cells  of  Algse 
simple  one-celled  form  with 
the  cells  embedded  in  a  jelly- 
like wall.  B  and  C,  forms 
with  the  cells  arranged  in 
chains. 


Plants  and  Their  Food 


7       — 


have  sunlight  before  they  can  make  their  food  materials 
out  of  the  simple  substances  named. 

1  la.  Food  Materials  Used  by  Green  Plants.  Use  a  jar  filled  with 
clear  spring  water,  as  mentioned  in  9a,  but  add  nothing  to  the  jar 
but  a  small  bit  of  some  common  pond  scum,  secured  from  the  streams 
or  watering  troughs.  Place  the  jar  in  a  well-lighted  window,  prefer- 
ably a  north  window.  Take  care  that  the  water  does  not  get  too 
warm  by  staying  too  long  in  very  bright  light.  Observe  from  day 
to  day  to  see  if  the  alga  mass  is  growing  larger.  It  will  grow  much 
slower  than  the  yeast  plants.  The  jar  may  be  kept  for  weeks  by 
adding  water  from  time  to  time,  to  make  up  the  loss  by  evaporation. 
If  the  alga  grows,  we  must  conclude  that  it  gets  all  the  food  it  used 
from  the  well-water  and  air,  because  nothing  else  was  added.  The 
water  contains  salts  dissolved  from  the  soil,  and  carbonic  acid  gas 
dissolved  from  the  air. 

12.  Green  Plants,  like  the  pond  scums,  herbs,  trees, 
etc.,  that  are  able  to  make  their  food  materials  out  of 
simple  substances,  are  called  ''independent,"  or  "self- 
feeding  plants."  Plants  like  the  yeast,  which  must  have 
their  food  substances  pre- 
pared for  them,  are  called 
^'dependent  plants." 

13.  Cellular  Structure  of 
Plants.  The  yeast  and  algse 
are  examples  of  very  simple 
plants.  The  higher  plants 
which  we  know  as  trees, 
herbs  and  weeds,  are  very 
large,  bat,  if  examined  with 
a  strong  microscope,  we  find 
that  their  bodies  are  made 
up  of  thousands,  even  mil- 
lions, of  tiny  cells,  much  like 
the   cells   of  the   algse   and 


Growth  of  individual  cells.  A, 
a  very  young  cell.  B,  similar  cellj 
but  very  much  larger  and  older, 
showing  vacuoles  or  sap  spaces.  C, 
a  still  later  stage — all  greatly  mag- 
nified w,  cell-wall.  Tij  nucleus  v, 
vacuoles. 


8 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


yeast,  except  that  their  sides  are  flattened  by  pressing 
against  each  other.  New  cells  are  formed  by  a  single 
cell  dividing  into  two  cells  (Fig.  6).  These  new  cells 
grow  to  a  certain  size  and  divide  again,  arid  so  on  till 
great  numbers  are  formed.    (See  Fig.  14,  C.) 

14.  The  Living 
Substance  of  Cells. 
The  cell  is  the  unit 
out  of  which  all  plant 
and  animal  bodies  are 
made,  just  as  the 
brick  is  the  unit  out 
of  which  buildings  are 
made.  Within  each  cell-wall  is  the  living  substance, 
called  protoplasm.  It  differs  from  dead  substance  in 
that  it  has  a  different  chemical  constitution,  and  the 
power  of  self-action.  Protoplasm  is  a  clear  granular 
substance,  like  the  white  of  an  egg  or  mucilage.  It 
differs  from  these  in  that  it  has  life. 


Fig.  6.  In  forming  new  cells  the  living  sub 
stance  or  protoplasm  divides  and  then  a  cell- 
wall  is  formed  between  them. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  environment,   2    What  is  the  purpose  of  "culture?" 

3.  What  is  the  most  important  condition  of  plant  environment? 

4.  Describe  the  yeast  plant.  5.  Name  other  kinds  of  these  simple 
plants,  and  mention  their  importance.  6.  What  do  you  learn  from 
the  yeast  experiment  as  to  the  kind  of  food  used  by  the  yeast  plants? 

7.  What  is  the  chief  difference  between  a  fungus  and  an  alga? 

8.  What  do  you  learn  from  the  "pond  scum"  experiment  as  to 
the  food  of  the  algae?  9.  Are  the  higher  plants,  such  as  herbs  and 
trees,  in  any  way  similar  to  simple  plants,  such  as  yeast  and  pond 
scum?  10.  Why  are  green  plants  called  independent;  fungi,  de- 
pendent plants? 


CHAPTER  III 

STRUCTURE    OF    SEEDS 

15.  Germinating  Seeds.  The  "  higher  plants  "  have 
their  round  of  life  from  the  seed  to  the  mature  plant, 
forming  roots,  stems,  branches,  leaves  and  flowers. 
Many  crops  of  the  farm  and  garden  are  started  each 
year  from  seed.  We  should  observe  a  number  of  the 
larger  kinds  of  seeds,  such  as  corn,  beans,  peas,  cotton, 
squash,  sunflower,  castor  beans,  and  any  other  large 
seeds  that  may  be  easily  secured.  After  we  have  closely 
examined  them  as  to  their  size,  texture  of  their  coverings, 
and  other  quali- 
ties, a  number  of 
each  kind  should 
be  planted  and 
observed  in  the 
schoolroom  while 
they  are  germi- 
nating. They  may 
be  planted  out-of-doors  if  the  weather  is  warm,  but  it 
will  be  much  better  to  plant  them  in  boxes  of  moist, 
clean  sand  or  sawdust.  A  shallow  box,  3  or  4  inches 
deep,  Hke  the  gardener's  flat  (Fig.  7),  will  answer  the 
purpose  very  well.  After  the  seeds  are  planted,  the 
box  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  place.  It  may  be  kept 
covered  with  a  pane  of  glass,  to  prevent  the  sand 
from  drying  out  too  rapidly.  The  student's  ger- 
minating seeds  will  furnish  fine  study  material  for  the 
class. 


Fig.  7.  Gardeners'  flats.  A,  showing  holes  for 
drainage.  B,  filled  with  sand  or  loam  ready  for 
planting. 


(9) 


10  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

15a.  Have  the  pupils  make  a  list  of  all  the  common  plants 
with  which  they  are  familiar  that  are  started  from  seeds;  also,  those 
that  are  started  from  bulbs,  roots,  and  cuttings. 

16.  Structure  of  Seeds.  When  we  look  at  a  bean,  we 
see  it  is  covered  with  a  thin  skin,  or  ''seed-coat,"  which 
is  quite  smooth  except  at  the  edge  where  it  was  attached 
to  the  bean  pod.    Now,  if  we  remove  this  coat  from  a 

seed  (using  one  that  has  been 
soaked  in  water  over-night),  two 
large,  thick  "  seed  leaves,"  or 
cotyledons  (cot-y-le-dons) ,  joined 
to  a  minute  stem,  may  be  seen. 
(Fig.  8.)  One  end  of  the  stem  is 
round  and  plump,  while  the  other 
bears  two  tiny  leaves.  The  latter 
Fig.  8.  Bean  seed  split  open     is  the  stem  end,  and   bears   the 

to  show  parts  of  plantlet.  i,     j      rpu  i.  ^ 

young  bud.  The  root  grows  from 
the  other  end.  Thus  we  see  that  the  bean  has  all  the 
parts  of  a  plant,  but  a  very  small  or  embryo  plant. 

17.  Stored-up  Food  in  Seeds.  Plants  need  food  to 
build  up  their  bodies  and  provide  energy,  just  as  animals 
do.  The  cotyledons  do  not  look  like  ordinary  leaves, 
because  they  are  filled  with  much  starch  and  other 
substances,  to  nourish  the  plantlet  when  it  begins  to 
grow.  Substances  stored  up  in  seeds  like  this  are  called 
"  reserve  foods."  The  reserve  food  in  the  case  of  the 
bean  is  largely  starch.  In  some  plants  it  is  largely  oil, 
as  in  cotton  seed,  sunflower,  pecan,  flax,  etc.  Besides 
starch  and  oils,  another  class  of  substances  is  present 
as  a  reserve  food  of  all  kinds  of  seeds,  called  pro- 
teids.  Proteids  from  animal  bodies  are  famihar,  as  the 
whites  and  yolks  of  eggs,  clabber  of  milk,  clot  of 
blood,  etc.    (See  Appendix  C.) 


Structure  of  Seeds 


11 


18.  Corn.  The  corn  "  grain  "  is  covered  with  a  clear 
skin,  or  seed-coat.*  If  we  cut  through  a  corn  grain,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  9,  we  see  a  yellowish  oily- 
germ,  or  embryo,  on  one  side,  and  a  large 
starchy  mass  of  additional  reserve  food 
stored  back  of  the  germ.  When  the  re- 
serve food  is  stored  outside  of  the  germ, 
it  is  called  endosperm.  The  endosperm  in 
the  corn  grain  exists  in  two  layers,  one 
of  which  is  starchy  and  loose,  and  the 
other  clear  and  hard. 

19.  Cotton.  In  cotton,  the  seed-coat 
is  covered  with  a  layer  of  fibers,  or  lint. 
The  hard  brownish  coat  encloses  an  em- 
bryo cotton  plant,  with  leaves  closely 
rolled  around  the  stem.  The  parts  are 
best  made  out  in  seeds  that  have  just 
germinated.  Cotton  seeds  are  very  rich 
in  oils  and  proteids. 


QUESTIONS 


Fig.  9.  Section  of 
a  grain  of  com 
showing  the 
parts  of  the  germ 
or  embryo  com 
plant  (A,  B  and 
E),  and  position 
of  reserve  food. 
A,  root  end  and 
B  shoot  end  of 
embryo;   E,   the 

Eart  of  the  em- 
ryo  that  ab- 
sorbs the  reserve 
food  during  ger- 
mination ; C, soft 
starch;  D,  homy 


ood. 


1.  In  what  other  ways  than  by  seeds  may  plants 
start  new  individuals?  2.  Name  the  parts  of  a  plant 
that  are  enclosed  in  a  bean  seed.  Describe  them  as 
they  are  in  the  seed.  3.  Of  what  use  are  the  cotyledons?  4.  What 
is  meant  by  reserve  food?  5.  What  substances  may  be  present  in 
reserve  foods?  6.  Describe  the  com  seed.  7.  What  is  the  essential 
difference  between  the  bean  seed  and  the  com  seed?  8.  Describe 
the  cotton  seed.  9.  Is  it  most  like  the  corn  seed,  or  the  bean  seed? 
that  is,  in  what  part  of  the  seed  is  the  reserve  food  stored? 

*In  reality,  the  covering  of  a  grain  of  corn  is  double,  but  the  two  coats  are 
so  closely  united  that  it  is  diflBcult  to  distinguish  them  without  special  prepa- 
ration. The  outer  coat  corresponds  to  the  pod,  or  seed-case,  as  in  beans. 


CHAPTER  IV 


HOW  SEEDLINGS  GET  ESTABLISHED 


20.  Germination.  Germinating  seeds  must  have 
water,  air,  and  a  certain  amount  of  warmth.  The  prompt- 
ness of  germination  depends  on  how 
well  these  conditions  are  provided. 
In  three  or  four  days,  seeds  sown  in 
moist  sand  will  be  found  to  be  very 
much  larger.  They  have  absorbed 
water  from  the  sand,  so  much  so 
that  the  weight  of  the  seed  is  now 
much  greater  than  when  it  was  dry. 
In  some,  the  coverings  of  the  seed 
will  be  found  broken,  and  tiny  roots 
pushing  through.  If  they  are  watched 
for  some  days,  it  will  be  found  that 
this  tiny  root  grows  in  a  downward 
direction,  regardless  of  the  position 
of  the  seed.  The  root  makes  a  con- 
siderable growth  before  the  young 
stem,  with  its  tiny  leaves,  gets  out 
of  the  seed  case.  (Fig.  10.)  When 
the  embryo  plant  inside  the  case 
begins  to  grow,  we  say  the  seed  is 
germinating. 

21.  Root-hairs.  The  tiny  rootlets 
which  we  found  pushing  through 
the  seed  coat  are  just  like  the  thou- 
sands of  branches  found  on  roots  of 


Fig.  10.  During  the  early 
stages  of  germination 
the  root  grows  faster 
than  the  shoot.  A,  root. 
B,  shoot.  C,  starchy  en- 
dosperm. D,  homy  en- 
dospenn. 


(12) 


How  Seedlings  Get  Established 


13  — 


older  plants.  They  are  very  delicate, 
and  it  is  better  to  grow  the  roots  in 
moist  air,  to  see  the  many  minute 
root-hairs.  On  a  seedling  with  root- 
lets an  inch  or  more  long,  notice 
that  just  back  of  the  tip  it  is  covered 
with  a  very  fine  fuzzy  growth.  This 
fuzzy  growth  is  composed  of  thou- 
sands of  slender  tube-like  cells,  called 
root-hairs.   (Figs.  11  and  12.) 

They  are  formed  near  the  root's 
tip.  After  a  time  they  die.  They 
cannot  be  found  on  the  root  except 
for  a  short  way  from  the  tip.  Unless 
the  soil  is  very  carefully  washed  from 
the  rootlets,  the  root-hairs  may  not 
been  seen.    (Fig.  11,  B.) 

22.  How  the  Root  Absorbs  Water. 
Even  though  the  seedhngs  that  have 
been  growing  in  sand  or  sawdust  be 
very  carefully  washed,  much  of  the 
adheres  to  the  hairs.  (Fig.  12.)  The  root 


A        B 


Fig  12.  Root-halts  of  com  seedling  with 
soil  particles  adhering  closely. 


Fig.  11.  Seedlings  of 
mustard.  A,  with 
particles  of  soil  cling- 
ing to  root-hairs.  B, 
after  removal  of  soil 
by  a  stream  of  water. 
After  Sachs. 

sand  or  sawdust 
-hairs  hold  the  soil 
particles  to  the 
root.  When  the 
roots  are  growing 
in  moist  air,  they 
are  straight;  but 
in  the  soil  the 
hairs  apply  them- 
selves very  closely 
to  the  soil  parti- 
cles. (Fig.  13.) 
The    water    ab- 


14 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


sorbed  by  the  root  is  first  taken  in  by  the  root-hairs. 
The  seedUngs  may  be  growing  in  soil  so  dry  that  water 
may  not  be  pressed  out  of  it,  still,  the  soil  particles  are 
covered  with  a  film  of  moisture  from  which  the  roots 
absorb  their  supply.    (See  Fig.  39.) 

23.  How  the  Root  Grows.  The  root  grows  only  at  the 
tip.    The  tip  does  not  grow  straight  through  the  soil, 


Kg.  13.  Diagram  of  a  portion  of  soil  penetrated  by  root-hairs,  h,  h' ,  arising 
from  root,  e.  At  z,  s,  s'  the  hair  has  grown  into  contact  with  some  of  the 
soil  particles,  T,  which  are  surrounded  by  water  films  (shaded  by  parallel 
lines).  After  Sachs. 

but  bends  to  and  fro  in  a  sort  of  circle,  taking 
advantage  of  the  small  openings  between  the  soil  par- 
ticles. It  is  covered  with  a  delicate  root-cap.  As  the 
root  lengthens,  the  cells  of  the  cap  are  rubbed  off,  but 
new  ones  are  formed  to  take  their  place.  Only  the  region 
in  front  of  the  root-hairs  has  the  power  of  lengthening. 
(Fig.  14.) 

24.  Absorption  of  Water  by  Seeds.  Seeds  absorb 
water  from  the  soil  particles.  When  dry  seeds  are  placed 
in  a  bed  of  moist  sand  or  loam,  the  little  film  of  moisture 
that  covers  the  soil  particles  is  absorbed  by  the  seeds. 


How  Seedlings  Get  Established 


15 


Seeds  will  not  absorb  enough  water  from  moist  air  to 
make  them  germinate.  They  must  be  in  contact  with 
a  substance  covered  with  a  film  of  water. 

24a.  The  Swelling  of  Seeds.  Place  some  common  beans  in  a 
glass  of  water,  and  observe  every  few  minutes.  Where  does  the 
seed  coat  wrinkle  first? 

24b.  Rate  of  Absorption  Affected  by  the 
Amount  of  Water  Present.  Place  a  dozen 
seeds  in  .  glass  of 
water,  a  second  dozen 
in  wet  sand,  and  a 
third  dozen  in  slightly 
damp  sand.  Examine 
every  day,  and  judge 
the  amount  of  water 
absorbed,  by  the  in- 
creased size  and  weight 
of  the  seeds. 

24c.  Rate  of  Ab- 
sorption Affected  by  the 
Number  of  Points  of 
Contact.  Take  two  lots 
of  seeds,  corn  for  ex- 
ample, and  place  each 
lot  in  a  tumbler  or 
other  vessel  with  the 
same  amount  of  moist 
sawdust  In  one, 
sprinkle  a  layer  of 
sawdust,  and  then  a  layer  of  seeds,  then  another  layer  of  each, 
taking  care  that  in  one  the  sawdust  is  not  pressed  down,  but  kept 
very  loose.  Prepare  the  second  vessel  just  as  above,  but  press  the 
sawdust  firmly  around  the  seeds.  This  increases  the  number  of 
points  of  contact  between  the  sawdust  and  the  seeds.  Cover,  to 
prevent  drying  out,  and  examine  the  seeds  at  the  end  of  every 
twelve  hours.  Does  pressing  the  sawdust  about  the  seeds  make 
them  swell  more  quickly? 

24d.  Prompt  Absorption  Hastens  Germination.  Sow  some  peas  in 
a  gardener's  flat,  filled  with  very  loose  sawdust.  Press  the  sawdust 


Fig.  14.  A,  a  young  root  of  the  pea 
marked  with  fine  lines  of  water- 
proof ink  into  13  spaces.  B,  the 
same  root,  24  hours  later,  showing 
elongation  only  in  terminal  5 
spaces.  The  rate  of  growth  is 
greatest  in  the  second  and  third 
spaces  and  slow  in  the  first,  fourth 
and  fifth.  Magnified  2  diam.  C,  tip 
of  root  greatly  magnified  and  shown 
in  section  .  w,  root-cap;  i,  younger  part  of 
cap;  z,  dead  cells  separating  from  cap;  s, 
growing  point;  p,  central  cylinder. 


16  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

down  firmly  on  one  end  and  leave  loose  on  the  other.  Cover  with 
a  glass,  to  prevent  drying  out,  and  note  the  time  required  for  ger- 
mination in  the  two  ends. 

25.  Other  Conditions  affecting  the  rate  of  absorption 
of  water  by  the  seeds,  are  temperature,  the  nature 
of  the  seed-coat,  etc.  The  seed  covering  of  most  culti- 
vated plants  will  absorb  and  transmit  the  soil-water 
quite  freely,  though  many  seeds  are  provided  with  thick, 
bony  shells,  or  coats,  that  resist  the  action  of  water  for 
weeks,  even  months,  if  they  once  become  dry.  Such 
seeds  are  the  peach,  locust,  walnut,  and  most  wild 
seeds.  Germination  may  sometimes  be  hastened  in 
such  seeds  by  soaking  in  warm  water  before  planting; 
freezing  while  moist  aids  and  hastens  others,  especially 
those  having  thick,  hard  shells,  such  as  peach,  walnut, 
hickory,  plum,  etc. 

26.  How  Warmth  Affects  Germination.  A  certain 
degree  of  warmth  is  necessary  before  seeds  will  germi- 
nate. If  we  had  placed  in  a  refrigerator  the  seeds  used 
in  the  experiment  described  in  H  15,  the  corn  and 
beans  would  not  have  germinated,  although  they 
had  plenty  of  water  and  air.  This  shows  that  a  certain 
amount  of  warmth  is  necessary  for  germination.  Some 
seeds,  however,  will  germinate  at  a  very  low  temperature, 
though  they  do  not  germinate  quickly.  The  lowest 
temperature  at  which  seeds  will  germinate  is  called 
the  "  minimum  germination  temperature."  The  high- 
est temperature  at  which  they  can  germinate  and  live 
is  called  the  "  maximum  germination  temperature." 
Between  the  highest  and  the  lowest  there  is  a  temperature 
at  which  germination  takes  place  quickly,  but  without 
injury  to  the  seedlings.  This  is  called  the  "  optimum 
germination  temperature."    These  temperatures   have 


How  Seedlings  Get  Established 


17 


been  determined  by  trial  for  many  kinds  of  seeds. 
The  following  results  were  reported  by  the  celebrated 
German  botanist,  Julius  Sachs:* 

Effect  of  Temperature  on  Germination 


Kind  of  Seeds 

Minimum  or  low- 
est between 

Optimum  or  best 
between 

Maximum  or 
highest  be- 
tween 

Oats 

Pea 

Wheat 

Fahr. 
32-41° 
32-41° 
32-41° 

Fahr. 

77-  88° 
77-  88° 
77-  88° 

Fahr. 
88-  99° 
88-  99° 
88-108° 

Indian  Corn 

Sunflower 

41-51°                  99-111° 
41-51°         :         88-  99° 
51-61°         1         93-111° 
60-65°                  88-  99° 
88-99°                  99-1 1 1 ° 

111-122° 
99-111° 

Pumpkin.   . . 

111-122° 

Melon 

111-122° 

Alfalfa 

111-122° 

27.  The  Soil  Should  Be  Warm  before  seeds  are  planted. 
If  the  soil  is  cold,  or  has  a  temperature  just  above  the 
minimum  temperature,  germination  will  be  slow,  and 
many  seeds  will  rot  before  the  seedling  is  established. 
The  soil  should  be  considerably  above  the  minimum 
temperature  before  seeds  are  planted.  The  variation 
in  the  minimum  temperature  required  for  germination 
in  different  kinds  of  seeds  explains  why  some  seeds  can 
be  planted  much  earUer  than  others. 

28.  Effect  of  Temperature  on  the  Promptness  of 
Germination.  In  some  tests  made  by  Professor  Haber- 
landt,  it  was  found  that  the  seeds  of  most  of  the  small 
grain  crops  required  five  to  seven  days  to  begin  germi- 
nation at  41°  Fahr.,  while  at  51°  Fahr.  only  half  the 
time  was  required.   At  65°  Fahr.,  one  day  was  sufficient 

♦Julius  Sachs,  esteemed  as  the  founder  of  modem  plant  physiology,  was 
bom  in  Breslau,  1832,  and  died  in  1897.  The  great  interest  aroused  by  the 
results  of  his  investigations  on  plant  nutrition  led  to  the  establishment  of  one 
of  the  first  public  institutions  for  the  scientific  study  of  agricultural  problems. 


18  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

for  wheat,  rye  arxd  oats.  Corn  required  three  days, 
and  tobacco  six  days.  Sugar  beets  germinated  in 
twenty-two  days  when  the  temperature  was  41°  Fahr., 
while,  at  65°  Fahr.,  germination  commenced  on  the 
third  day.    (See  ^\  94,  Temperature  of  Soils.) 

29.  Germinating  Seeds  Need  Air.  Growing  plants, 
including  germinating  seeds,  must  have  air.  They  use 
the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  we  call  it  respiration,  just  as 
we  do  in  animals.  While  plants  do  not  have  lungs,  they 
absorb  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  give  off  carbon  dioxid. 
(But  see  ^  48,  Carbon  Assimilation.) 

29a.  To  show  that  germinating  seeds  use  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
take  two  large  fruit  jars  with  good  rubber  bands.  Into  one  put  noth- 
ing. Into  the  other  put  a  big  handful  of  soaked  seeds  of  corn  or 
peas.  Screw  the  tops  on  tightly  and  let  stand  for  about  twelve  hours. 
Then  carefully  remove  the  top  from  the  empty  jar  and  thrust  a 
lighted  splinter  down  to  near  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  noting  the  dura- 
tion and  brilliancy  of  the  burning  taper.  The  taper  goes  out  after 
a  time,  because  the  burning  of  the  wood  uses  up  the  oxygen  in  the 
jar.  Now  thrust  a  lighted  paper  into  the  jar  with  the  germinating 
seeds,  noting  if  it  burns  as  brightly  as  in  the  empty  jar.  It  goes  out 
quickly  because  the  germinating  seeds  have  used  up  all  the  oxygen, 
and  that  carbon  dioxid  is  present"  may  be  proven  by  lime-water 
poured  down  the  side  of  each  jar.  The  empty  one  gives  no  result, 
while  the  other  will  show  a  white  band  on  the  inside  of  the  jar.  This 
is  the  test  for  carbon  dioxid.* 

30.  Not  All  Seeds  Germinate.  Seeds  often  fail  to  ger- 
minate when  given  the  proper  conditions  for  germina- 
tion. This  may  be  due  to  one  or  more  causes.  They 
may  be  too  old;  they  may  have  been  gathered  when 
immature;  they  may  have  become  too  dry,  or  frozen 
when   not   sufficiently   dry.     Sometimes   they   become 

♦Carbon  dioxid,  exhaled  from  the  lungs  of  animals  and  bv  germinating 
seeds,  is  a  gas  formed  by  the  union  of  two  elements — carbon  and  oxygen.  Oxygen 
is  a  gas  forming  a  large  part  of  the  air;  carbon  is  a  solid  familiar  as  charcoal, 
which  is  crude  carbon 


How  Seedlings  Get  Established 


19 


damp  and  spoiled  by  molds.  In  many  cases,  insects 
injure  them  while  stored.  It  is  not  usually  possible  to 
tell  if  seeds  will  germinate  by  looking  at  them. 

31.  Testing  Seeds  for  Germinating  Powers.  If  there 
is  reason  to  think  that  a  particular  lot  of  seeds  are  not 
practically  sound,  they  should  be  tested.  It  is  a  simple 
matter  to  test  the  germinating  power  of  a  sample  of 
seeds.  Several  forms  of  seed-testing  apparatus  may  be 
easily  provided.  Any  arrangement  will  do  that  will 
allow  us  to  place  a  counted  number  of  seeds  under  the 
proper  conditions  for 
germination.  Small 
seeds  may  be  placed 
between  moistened 
layers  of  clean  cloth 
or  soft  paper.  It  is 
best  to  wash  the  cloth 
in  boiUng  water  be- 
fore use,  in  order  to 
lessen  the  liability  to 
the  growth  of  molds. 
Moist  sand  or  saw- 
dust is  very  satisfac- 
tory for  large  seeds  like  corn,  beans,  etc.  We  will  later 
learn  more  about  testing  seeds  for  yielding  power(lI213a). 

31a.  Farmer  B.  bought  two  bushels  of  alfalfa  seed  at  $9  per 
bushel,  of  which  95  per  cent  were  viable,  that  is,  capable  of  germi- 
nating. He  was  offered  seed  for  $8  per  bushel,  of  which  only  75 
per  cent  would  germinate.  What  was  the  actual  cost  of  a  bushel 
of  live  seed  in  each  lot? 

32.  How  Deep  Should  Seeds  be  Planted?  Seeds  should 
be  planted  just  deep  enough  to  secure  the  conditions 
necessary  for  germination.   The  soil  is  warmer  near  the 


Fig.  15.    A  good  seed  tester.    Clean  sand  and 
soup-plates. 


20  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


Fig.  16.    Seed-testing  devices 

surface,  but  also  dryer.  If  planted  too  deep,  it  will 
take  a  longer  time  to  begin  germination,  because  the 
deeper  ground  is  colder,  particularly  so  in  early  spring. 
The  table  below  shows  the  effect  on  the  time  in 
coming  up,  of  planting  wheat  at  different  depths,  and 
the  number  of  seedlings  that  grew. 

Proportion  of  seed 
Depth                                  Time  in  coming  up                           that  grew 
^  inch 11  days -J 

1  inch 12  days all 

2  inches 18  days | 

3  inches 20  days '. | 

4  inches 21  days .....". | 

5  inches 22  days | 

6  inches 23  days | 

The  seedhng  will  be  more  exhausted  before  it  reaches 

the  surface  if  planted  too  deep. 
The  seedhng  stage  is  a  delicate 
one.  Success,  therefore,  in 
getting  a  good  stand  will  often 
depend  on  how  well  the  soil 
has  been  prepared  for  the 
seeds.  The  soil  intended  for 
the  seeds  should  be  warm, 
moist  and  mellow.  The  par- 
ticles should  be  so  fine  that 
the  seed  will  be  in  contact  with 
grains  of  soil  on  all  sides.  Small 
seeds,  like  tobacco,  are  merely 

Fig.  17.  1,  Pea  planted  just  deep    pressed  iuto  the  sui'face  with  a 

soil"!,  too  deep'seedlings^delay-      board.     With  SUCh  Small  Seeds, 
ed  in  reaching  surface;   3,    too  •    i  i.  i_        i  j 

deep.unable  to  reach  the  surface.      SpeCial      arrangements      StlOUlCl 


How  Seedlings  Get  Established 


21 


be  made  to  keep  the  surface  from  drying  out  until  the 
young  plantlets  have  sent  their  roots  into  the  soil. 

33.  In  Planting  Field  Seeds,  it  is  often  desirable  to 
put  them  sufficiently  deep  to  allow  for  some  drying  out 
of  the  surface  soil.  If  planted  very  near  the  surface,  hot 
winds  will  often  dry  the  soil  before  the  seeds  absorb 
enough  water  to  germinate.  To  produce  quick  germina- 
tion, it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  compact  the  surface  by 
rolling.  This  puts  the  surface  particles  in  closer  con- 
tact with  the  seeds,  and  the  moisture  is  absorbed  more 
rapidly.  In  dry  times,  the  seeds  often  germinate  more 
quickly  in  the  tracks  made  by  persons  walking  across 
the  field.  Gardeners  often  pack  the  surface  with  a 
spade  or  board  or  roller,  after  sowing  the  seeds.  When 
moisture  is  scarce  in  the  soil,  as  is  quite  often  the  case 
at  the  planting  time  of  field  seeds,  ^a  most  practical 
and  successful  way  to  secure  the  germination  of  seeds 
in  drills  is  to  make  the  laying-off  plow  or  tool  cut  a 
deep  V-shaped  furrow  in  the  compact  soil,  into  which 
the  seeds  are  dropped  and  covered  to  the  proper  depth 
with  fine  soil.    This  V- 

shaped  furrow  affords 
two  banks  of  undis- 
turbed soil  holding 
a  supply*  of  moisture 
for  the  seed.  (Fig. 
IS.) 

34.  Prompt    Germi-  moisture. 

nation  Important.  Seeds  that  germinate  quickly  give 
more  vigorous  plants.  Besides,  seeds  in  the  ground 
may  be  destroyed  by  insects,  or  caused  to  rot  by  fungi 
and  bacteria,  or  rains  may  come  and  make  a  hard  crust 
on  the  surface  through  which  they  cannot  grow.    Vig- 


Fig.  18.    Planting  seeds  in  the  '*  water  fur- 
row" insures  a  more  even   supply  of 


22  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

orous-growing  weeds  may  crowd  out  slow-growing  seed- 
lings. Prompt  germination  may  be  secured  under  field 
conditions  by  thoroughly  preparing  the  seed  bed,  and 
delaying  planting  until  the  soil  is  warmed  sufficiently 
for  the  kind  of  seed  to  be  planted.    (See  Tl  27.) 

36.  Time  Required  to  Complete  Germination.  The 
plantlets  are  nourished  for  a  time  by  the  reserve  food 
in  the  seed.  While  the  plantlet  is  dependent  on  this 
reserve  food,  it  is  called  a  ''seedUng."  The  root  develops 
faster  at  first,  with  the  result  that  the  plantlet  secures 
a  more  permanent  supply  of  moisture  from  the  deeper 
layers.  The  roots  grow  down  or  downward,  and  the 
stem  and  leaves  grow  upward  into  the  air.  The  time 
required  for  the  completion  of  the  seedling  stage  will 
vary  with  the  kind  of  seed  and  the  conditions  which 
affect  germination.  When  conditions  favor  quick  ger- 
mination and  rapfd  growth,  the  supply  of  reserve  food 
is  used  up  much  sooner.  Wheat  seedlings  will  exhaust 
their  reserve  food  in  ten  days  in  warm  weather;  but,  if 
the  temperature  is  low,  it  may  be  forty  days  before  the 
plantlet  is  thoroughly  estabUshed. 

36.  Hotbeds.  It  is  often  desirable  to  grow  seedlings 
under  artificial  conditions,  so  that  the  plants  may  be 
ready  for  transplanting  when  the  warm  season  comes. 
Many  tender  garden  plants,  such  as  tomatoes  and  cab- 
bages, are  propagated  in  this  way.  Coldframes  and  hot- 
beds are  often  used  A  coldframe  is  an  inclosed  bed  of 
soil  that  may  be  covered  at  night  to  protect  from  frost. 
A.  hotbed  is  an  inclosed  bed  of  soil,  covered  with  glass, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  19,  which  is  warmed  by  the  heat  of 
fermenting  compost  placed  below  the  bed  of  soil.  Some- 
times steam  pipes  are  run  below  the  seed-bed  to  supply 
the  warmth. 


How  Seedlings  Get  Established 


23 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  germination.  2.  What  are  root-hairs?  3.  What 
is  their  position  on  the  roots?  4.  What  is  the  purpose  of  root-hairs? 
5.  At  what  place  does  the  root  grow?  6.  How  is  this  growing  region 
protected?  7.  What  are  the  conditions  necessary  for  germination? 
8.  iDoes  the  air  contain  enough  moisture  for  germination?  9.  Name 
some  seeds  whose  seed-coats  hinder  quick  germination.  10.  How 
may  this  hindrance  be  overcome?  11.  Why  do  not  most  seeds 
germinate  in  winter?  12.  What  is  meant  by  "minimum  germination 
temperature"?  By  "maximum  germination  temperature"?  By 
"optimum"?  13.  Discuss  the  relation  of  soil,  and  the  time  of 
planting,  to  these  temperatures.  14.  Give  in  substance  the  results 
of  Professor  Haberlandt's  experiment  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  tem- 
perature on  the  promptness  of  germination.  15.  What  necessary 
food  does  the  plant  get  from  the  air?  Does  the  plant  breathe  in  the 
same  gas  that  we  do?  16.  Name  some  of  the  causes  of  failure  in 
germination.  17.  What  are  some  of  the  conditions  of  successful 
seed-planting?     18.  What  are  coldframes?  hotbeds? 


Fig.  19.  Hotbeds  and  coldframes.  The  upper  figure  is  a  coldframe.  If  let 
down  into  the  soil  and  warmed  by  fermenting  compost,  it  is  called  a  hot- 
bed. A,  Warm  air;  B,  garden  loam;  C,  fermentmg  compost;  D,  bank 
of  eoil. 


CHAPTER  V 
PLANT   SUBSTANCE 

37.  The  Body  of  a  Plant,  including  stem,  root,  seeds, 
etc.,  is  composed  chiefly  of  framework  material  and 
reserve  food.  The  framework  material  is  never  used 
by  the  plant  for  any  other  purpose.  The  reserve  food 
contains  a  variety  of  substances.  Sometimes  this  re- 
serve food  is  separated  by  mechanical  means  in  an 
almost  pure  condition,  such  as  starch  from  corn  and 
potatoes,  cooking  oil  from  cotton  seed,  linseed  oil  from 
flax  seed,  castor  oil  from  castor  beans,  corn  oil  from 
corn,  and  peanut  butter  (a  thick  oil)  from  peanuts. 
When  the  starches  and  oils  are  thus  removed,  there 
still  remain  the  bran  and  meal,  which  contain  a  variety 
of  food  substances. 

38.  In  Germinating  Seeds,  all  the  reserve  food  may 
be  used  to  nourish  the  young  plant.  The  substances 
in  the  thick  cotyledons  of  the  bean  were  seen  to  wither 
away  as  the  seedhng  grew.  The  store  ot  food  for  the 
young  plant  in  the  seed  was  put  there  by  the  parent 
plant.  A  corn  grain  will  produce  from  one  thousand 
to  two  thousand  seeds  and  a  large  stalk.  Where  does 
the  seedling  get  all  the  food  materials  to  nourish  so 
large  a  stalk,  and  lay  up  a  large  store  for  so  many  other 
seeds?  Before  we  answer  this  question,  we  will  try  to 
find  out  something  of  the  nature  of  the  substances  in 
plants. 

39.  Composition  of  Plant  Substance.  Chemists  have 
ways   of  separating   the   various   substances   found   in 

(24) 


Plant  Substance  25 

plants.  They  find  that  every  plant  contains  a  variety 
of  substances,  though  the  quantity  and  number  vary 
in  different  kinds  of  plants.  Some  plants,  as  corn,  con- 
tain much  starch  in  their  seeds,  and  but  little  in  the 
stalk.  Some  plants  have  a  large  amount  of  sugar,  as 
beets  and  sugar-cane,  while  others  contain  oil.  These 
substances  which  we  call  starch,  oils,  sugars,  proteids, 
resins,  gums,  acids,  etc.,  are  themselves  compounds 
of  a  number  of  "elements."  The  carbon  mentioned  in 
TI  29  is  an  element.  So  are  iron,  sulphur,  lead  and  the 
oxygen  of  the  air. 

40.  Compounds  of  Elements.  A  simple  element  is  a 
substance  of  a  peculiar  kind  that  cannot  be  reduced  by 
analysis  to  any  simpler  state.  When  wood  burns,  the 
carbon  (an  element)  of  the  wood  combines  with  the 
oxygen  (an  element)  of  the  air,  to  form  an  invisible 
gas,  known  as  carbon  dioxid  (a  compound).  When  iron 
"  rusts,"  it  has  formed  a  compound  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air.  In  germinating  seeds,  the  oxygen  absorbed 
is  afterward  given  off  as  carbon  dioxid.  Oxygen  com- 
bines with  another  element  which  we  call  hydrogen, 
to  form  the  substance  we  call  water.  Thus  we  see  that 
the  same  element  may  combine  with  a  number  of  other 
elements,  making  a  different  compound  or  substance 
with  each  combination. 

41.  Substances  Found  in  Plants  are  usually  complex 
compounds  of  the  simple  elements;  for  instance,  staich 
is  a  combination  of  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen, 
and  the  properties  of  the  substance  we  call  starch  are 
different  from  any  of  its  parts.  Sugar  is  composed  of 
these  same  elements,  but  has  them  combined  in  a 
different  way.  Wood  is  composed  of  the  same  three 
elements,  yet  combined  in  still  a  different  way. 


26  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

42.  Protoplasm,  or  living  substance,  has  the  power 
to  combine  simple  compounds  to  form  the  complex 
ones  that  compose  the  plant  or  animal  body.  Living 
green  plants  absorb  water  and  mineral  matter  from  the 
soil  and  carbon  dioxid  from  the  air,  and  with  these  form 
the  complex  plant  substances.  Light  is  needed  by  the 
leaves  in  making  these  combinations. 

43.  Elements  Necessary  for  Plant  Growth.  There 
are  about  eighty  different  elements  known,  but  only 
about  a  dozen  are  actually  used  by  plants.  The  follow- 
ing elements  are  necessary  for  the  healthy  growth  of 
plants:  (1)  Carbon,  absorbed  by  the  leaves  from  the 
air  as  carbon  dioxid;  (2)  oxijgen  and  (3)  hydrogen  taken 
in  as  water;  and  the  following,  all  taken  in  by  the  roots 
from  the  soil  solutions  as  soluble  salts:  (4)  nitrogen, 
(5)  phosphorus,  (6)  potassium,  (7)  calcium,  (8)  magne- 
sium, (9)  sulphur,  (10)  iron,  and  (11)  chlorine.  Other 
elements  are  often  found  in  plants,  but  only  the  ones 
named  above  are  really  essential.  If  any  one  of  these 
essential  elements  is  withheld  from  the  plant,  the  normal 
growth  is  impaired.  The  importance  of  the  mineral 
substances  to  the  welfare  of  plants  will  be  discussed 
later.    (See  Chapters  XII  and  XIII.) 

44.  Non-essential  Elements  in  Plants.  Besides  the 
essential  elements  named,  plants  usually  contain  other 
elements  that  are  really  not  necessary  for  their  normal 
growth.  The  most  common  ones  are  sodium  (the  prin- 
cipal element  in  common  salt),  and  silicon,  a  constitu- 
ent of  sand. 

45.  The  Amounts  of  the  Elements  in  the  Plant  Body , 
About  half  of  the  plant  substance  is  carbon.  It  is  a 
part  of  practically  all  compounds  found  in  plants. 
Oxygen    and   hydrogen,    too,    are   parts  of   nearly  all 


Plant  Substance  27 

substances  in  plant  and  animal  bodies.  Nitrogen  is 
always  present  in  the  living  substance,  or  protoplasm. 
The  other  elements,  usually  called  the  "  mineral  ele- 
ments," while  absolutely  essential,  occur  only  in  small 
amounts,  usually  less  than  five  per  cent.  These  elements 
form  the  ''ash,"  when  plants  are  burned. 

Note. —  It  is  important  that  students  should  have  a  reason- 
ably clear  notion  of  the  properties  of  matter,  what  an  element  is, 
and  the  differences  between  a  mixture,  a  solution,  and  a  chemical 
compound.  Some  simple  experiments  will  prove  very  helpful  in  this 
connection,  such  as  the  burning  of  a  match,  a  lamp,  or  a  sulphur  or 
tallow  candle,  with  a  discussion  and  explanation  of  the  phenomena 
in  each  case.  Likewise,  experiments  involving  the  dissolving  of  salt 
or  sugar  in  water,  and  its  subsequent  recovery  by  the  evaporation 
of  the  water,  should  be  performed  and  discussed  fully. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  of  the  reserve  food  substances.  2.  What  is 
meant  by  a  "chemical  element"?  Name  some  common  ones.  3.  Do 
plants  contain  simple  elements?  Name  three  plant  materials  that 
contain  the  same  elements  combined  differently.  4.  By  what 
means  does  the  plant  manufacture  complex  compounds  out  of 
simple  compounds?  5.  Name  the  elements  essential  for  plant 
growth.  6.  Name  the  most  common  non-essential  elements  in 
plants.    7.  What  are  the  proportions  of  the  elements  in  plants? 


CHAPTER  VI 
HOW  THE  PLANT  INCREASES  ITS  SUBSTANCE 

46.  The  Work  of  Leaves.  The  leaves  are  the  food 
factory  of  the  plant.  Perhaps  you  have  never  thought 
to  ask  why  most  leaves  are  flat.  You  will  find  a  sugges- 
tion of  the  answer  if  you  note  that  their  flat  faces 
are  usually  turned  toward  the  source  of  the  strong- 
est light.  Look  at  a  tree,  to  note  the  position  of  the 
leaves,  as  seen  from  a  distance  and  from  among  the 
branches.  This  position  is  an  advantage  to  the  leaf  in 
carrying  on  its  work,  because  it  secures  the  greatest 
amount  of  energy  from  the  sunlight  for  the  food-making 
process. 

47.  Structure  of  Leaves.  A  thin  section  of  a  leaf, 
when  examined  under  a  powerful  microscope,  is  seen 


Fig.  20.  Cross-section  of  a  leaf  through  a  "vein,"  or  fibro-vascular  bundle. 
Os,  upper  surface;  ils,  under  surface;  o,  layer  of  outside  cells  forming  the 
epidermis;  sp.  Stoma;  g,  water  duct;  wb,  phloem;  hlz,  wood  cells  of  fibro- 
vascular  bundle. 

(28) 


How  the  Plant  Increases  Its  Substance 


29 


to  be  composed  of  a  great  number  of  cells.  The  surface 
layer  forms  a  skin,  or  "  epidermis,",  which  keeps  the 
cells  within  from 


drying, 


(Fig 


20.)  The  epi- 
dermis is  in 
two  layers.  The 
outer,  or  cutin 
layer,  is  only  a  thin 
membrane  which,  while 
transparent,  to  allow  the 
light  to  reach  the  inner 
tissues  of  the  leaf,  is 
impervious  to  water. 
The  second  layer  is  a  tier  of  cells 
which  support  the  cutin  layer.  This 
epidermis  is  very  efficient  in  keeping 
the  water  in  the  leaf, 
side  of  the  leaf,  and  on 
of  some  leaves, 
there  are  many  — ~ 
small  openings, 
to  let  the  car- 
bon dioxid  en- 
ter and  the 
excess  of  oxy- 
gen pass  out 
when  the  plant  is  making  food.  (Fig.  21.)  Some  water 
escapes  through  these  openings,  or  stomata  (singular, 
stoma);  but  at  night,  when  the  food-making  processes 
are  not  going  on,  these  stomata  close  up,  so  that 
much  less  water  escapes. 

47a.    To  get  an  idea  of  how  well  the  epidermis  protects  the 


(CONTAINS    M/NeRAI.    FOOD) 

Fig.  21.  How  the  young  plant  gets  its  food.  In  the  early 
stages  it  is  nourished  from  the  store  of  food  in  the 
cotyledons.  When  the  green  leaves  unfold  to  the 
light  they  absorb  the  energy  of  the  sunlight  and 
cause  the  water  to  combine  with  the  carbon  dioxid 
of  the  air  to  form  starches  and  other  foods. 


30  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

plant,  take  an  apple  or  potato  and  peel  off  the  epidermis  and  place 
in  an  exposed  place  beside  an  unpeeled  specimen  Note  how  quickly 
the  peeled  specimen  will  shrivel  and  dry,  while  the  other  retains  its 
form. 

48.  Carbon  Assimilation.  The  soft  tissue  between  the 
upper  and  the  lower  epidermis  is  the  real  food  factory 
of  the  plant.  It  is  composed  of  several  layers  of  cells, 
all  arranged  sponge-like,  so  that  the  carbon  dioxid 
of  the  air  can  reach  every  cell.  All  these  cells  contain 
minute  green  bodies,  called  chloroplastids  (chlo-ro- 
plast-ids).  The  green  coloring  matter  in  these  bodies 
is  formed  only  in  the  light.  It  does  not  form  in  leaves 
growing  in  the  dark.  The  yellowish  stems  of  potatoes 
growing  in  dark  cellars  is  a  familiar  example.  The  green 
color  will  disappear  if  plants  are  kept  from  the  Ught. 
Advantage  is  taken  of  this  property  in  ''blanching'^ 
celery.  When  the  light  shines  on  the  leaves,  the  chloro- 
phyll absorbs  the  energy  of  the  sun's  rays  and  forms 
the  starches,  sugars,  etc.,  from  the  water  and  carbon 
dioxid.  This  process  goes  on  through  all  daylight  hours. 
(1)  Light,  (2)  living  cell  with  (3)  chlorophyll,  (4)  water 
and  (5)  carbon  dioxid  must  all  he  present.  This  explains 
why  plants  do  not  grow  unless  they  get  plenty  of  sun- 
light. This  process  of  making  plant  substance  under 
the  influence  of  sunlight  is  called  ''carbon  assimilation." 
It  is  not  confined  to  the  leaves,  but  takes  place  in  any 
green  cell  when  the  other  conditions  exist.  (See  Figs. 
20  and  21.) 

49.  How  Green  Plants  Purify  the  Air.  When  carbon 
dioxid  combines  with  water,  the  excess  of  free  oxygen 
of  the  carbon  compound  escapes  into  the  air.  By  this 
means,  growing  green  plants  purify  the  air.  They  take 
up  the  carbon  dioxid  given  off  from  the  lungs,  or  that 


How  the  Plant  Increases  Its  Substance  31 

formed  by  burning  of  plant  or  animal  bodies,  and  retain 
the  carbon,  the  oxygen  being  set  free.  But  this  oxygen- 
izing power  of  plants  is  much  less  than  is  generally 
supposed;  for  the  respiratory  process  of  plants,  giving 
out  carbon  dioxid  partially  counteracts  the  effect  of 
the  assimilative  process.  Carbon  assimilation  does  not 
take  place  rapidly  in  a  subdued  light,  such  as  exists 
in  an  inclosed  room. 

50.  Importance  of  Carbon  Assimilation.  With  one 
or  two  minor  exceptions,  this  process  of  food-making 
is  the  only  known  means  of  increasing  the  supply  of 
food  for  both  plants  and  animals.  We  can  now  answer 
the  question  asked  in  T|  38.  By  this  process  the  corn 
plant  is  able  to  reproduce  itself  many  fold  and,  also, 
"  tall  oaks  from  Httle  acorns  grow."  No  animal  has 
this  power  to  form  food  substances  from  the  simpler 
compounds.  It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  farmer's 
stock,  and  indeed  all  life,  is  dependent  upon  plant  life 
for  food.  More  than  one-half  of  everything  grown  on 
the  farm  is  carbon  drawn  from  the  air. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  most  leaves  flat?  2.  Describe  the  layers  in  a  leaf. 
3.  Which  layer  manufactures  food?  4.  Describe  carefully  how  the 
carbon  of  the  air  gets  into  the  leaf.  5.  Is  light  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  the  green  color  in  leaves?  6.  What  is  the  effect  of 
continued  darkness  on  green  plants?  7.  Name  the  five  necessary 
conditions  for  the  making  of  plant  substance.  8.  Discuss  the 
importance  of  food-making  by  plants. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  WATER  IN  PLANTS 

51.  Why  Plants  Need  Water.  Plants  use  water  in 
three  essential  ways:  (1)  It  combines  directly  with 
carbon  dioxid  to  form  plant  substance;  (2)  it  acts  as 
a  solvent  for  the  minerals  absorbed  from  the  soil;  (3)  it 
serves  to  make  the  plant  rigid.  Young,  succulent  stems 
are  dependent  on  water  for  their  rigidity.  If  water 
escapes,  they  wilt  and  lose  the  power  of  carrying  on 
their  work.  Water  is  necessary  for  plants  in  other 
ways.    It  is  present  in  all  parts. 

52.  The  Movement  of  Water  within  the  Plant.  There 
are  special  channels  for  conducting  the  water  from  the 
roots  to  the  stems  and  leaves.  The  water  is  absorbed 
by  the  roots  and  is  transported  in  special  water-conduct- 
ing vessels  through  the  stem  and  leaves.  These  chan- 
nels may  be  easily  marked  by  placing  the  soft  stem  of 
some  plant  in  a  glass  of  blueing  or  of  diluted  red  ink. 
The  coloring  matter  will  be  carried  along  with  the  water 
and  the  path  through  which  it  moves  will  be  shown. 
This  experiment  should  be  made  and  closely  observed 
by  all.  Cut  cross-sections  of  the  stem  to  notice  the 
channels  through  which  the  water  travels.  Leafy  stems 
of  balsam,  begonia,  Johnson  grass,  poke-berry,  and 
other  common  plants,  make  good  illustrations. 

53.  The  Amount  of  Water  in  Plant  Substance  is  con- 
siderable, as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table  show- 
ing the  approximate  amount  of  water  in  a  number  of 
common  plants. 

(32) 


The  Water  in  Plants 


33 


Approximate  Amount  of  Water  in  Plants 


Alfalfa 

Prairie  Hay .  .  . 
Corn  Stalks.  .  . 
Potato  Tubers 
Corn  Grain  .  . . 

Turnips 

Grain  straw. .  . 
Small  grains  . . 


In   fresh  plants — 

In  air-dry  plants — 

water  in  100  lbs. 

wftter  in  100  lbs. 

Average 

Average 

72 

8.4 

70 

30.0 

82 

34.0 

75 

10.0 

91 

• 

9.0 

.... 

9  to  12 

53a.  How  many  pounds  of  water  in  a  ton  of  freshly  cut  alfalfa? 
How  many  pounds  of  water  in  a  ton  of  air-dry,  or  cured  alfalfa? 

54.  Loss  of  Water  by  Plants.  Plants  lose  water  through 
the  stomata  in  their  leaves,  and  their  other  parts  to  a 
sUght  extent.  Some  plants  lose  water  very  slowly,  even 
under  very  dry  conditions,  as,  for  instance,  the  cactus 
on  the  dry,  open  prairies.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
ordinary  cultivated  plants  lose  water  by  transpiration 
about  one-fifth  to  one-tenth  as  ^ast  as  it  would  evapo- 
rate from  a  surface  of  free  water.  In  times  of  drought, 
when  the  air  is  very  dry,  transpiration  will  be  greater 
than  under  ordinary  conditions.  Hot,  dry  winds  in- 
crease the  rate  at  which  water  escapes  from  the  plant. 
(See  TI  98,  How  Plants  Dry  the  Soil.) 

55.  Drought-resistant  Varieties  of  cultivated  plants 
have  coverings  that  prevent  the  ready  escape  of  water. 
This  may  be  seen  in  the  varieties  of  corn  imported 
from  dry  countries,  which  have  thicker  leaves  and 
coarser  shucks  than  the  native  kinds. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  three  ways  do  plants  use  water?  2.  How  does  the 
plant  get  water?  3.  How  does  the  plant  lose  water?  4.  How  do 
drought-resisting  plants  prevent  the  escape  of  water? 


CHAPTER  VIII 


STRUCTURE  AND  WORK  OF  STEMS 


forming  the 


56.  The  Primary  Use  of  the  Stem  is  to  hold  the  leaves 
up  where  they  may  be  fully  exposed  to  the  light.  Sun- 
light furnishes  the  energy  for  the  food-making  work. 
Of  course,  when  the  leaves  are  more  exposed  to  ^. 
the  light  and  winds,  evaporation  is  increased.  H] 
Therefore,  stemmed  plants  need  more  water  than  Hjl 
stemless  ones.  _ 

57.  The  Growing  Point  of  the  Stem 
is  in  the  bud  at  the  end.    The  cells  at 
the    growing   tip   are  very    small   and 
delicate.    The  young  sections,  or  inter- 
nodes,*    grow  in   length, 
stem.    The  stem  length- 
ens by   the    multiplica- 
tion and  growth  of  the 
cells.    All  the   cells   are 
much  alike  at  first,  but, 
as  the  cells  lengthen,  so 
does    the    stem.     Many 
changes    take    place. 
Soon  there  are   several 

kmds    of    cells    and   Ves-       ^-g    22.     Cross-section  of  a  woody  stem. 

sels,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22.         STJ.erducSr'fwoodr*^rtio'ntt 
Some    are    elongated,         Cr'^v'r'G^^dlle"'"" '"""°'"' 

♦The  use  of  the  words  nodes  and  intemodea  is  made  necessary  by  the  double 
use  ot  the  word  "joint. ' 

(34) 


Structure  and  Work  of  Stems 


35 


thick-walled,  woody  fibers,  arranged  with 
overlapping  ends  cemented  together,  thus 
stiffening  the  stem.  The  water-conducting 
vessels  are  surrounded  by  these  woody 
fibers.  In  some  grasses  and  grass-like 
plants,  the  water  vessels  and  wood  fibers 
are  united  into  strands  forming  the 
''threads,"  or  fibro  -  vascular  bundles, 
embedded  in  a  mass  of  soft  pithy  tissue. 
This  condition  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
stalks  of  corn.  The  strands  (Fig.  23)  in 
the  pith  are  bundles  of  woody  fibers  sur- 
rounding the  water-conducting  channels. 
Plants  having  the  veins  of  the  leaves 
arranged  like  a  net  have  the  water-con- 
ducting vessels  in  the  woody  part.  (Fig. 
22.)  In  young  stems  they  exist  as  separate 


Fig.  23.  Corn- 
stalk, showing 
fibre-  vascular 
bundles,  or 
"threads." 


Fig.  24,  Cross-section  (B)  and  longi-section  (A)  of  stem,  greatly  magnified. 
P,  pith;  d,  d,  water  ducts;  m,  medullary  rays;  w,  woody  portion  of  stem; 
c,  delicate  cambium  or  growing  cells;  s,  phloem  of  food-conducting  cells;  6, 
hard  fibers;  ck,  cortex;  e,  epidermis. 


36 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


bundles,  but  with  age  become  so  numerous  that  they 
unite  to  form  the  soUd  woody  portion  of  the  stem. 
Outside  of  this  woody  region  is  a  layer  of  very  thin- 
walled  cells  that  are  actively  dividing  and  growing. 
This  is  the  cambium  layer.    (Fig.  24c  ) 

58.  Cambium.  The  cambium  is  the  region  of  active 
growth  in  the  stem  of  plants  with  netted  veined  leaves. 
It  causes  the  stem  to  increase  in  diameter  by  adding 
layers  of  cells  each  season,  forming  the  annular  rings. 

(Fig.  25.)  The 
cambium  cells  6n 
the  inner  side  be- 
come wood  cells 
and  water  ducts, 
while  the  cells  on 
the  outside  are 
gradually  trans- 
formed into  the 
food-  conduct- 
i  n  g  channels,  o  r 
phloem,  just  under  the  bark.  The  increasing  thicken- 
ing of  the  stem  breaks  the  outer  bark  in  long,  vertical 
slits,  and  new  bark  is  formed  below. 

59.  Wounds  made  by  pruning,  gnawing  of  rabbits, 
breaking  of  branches,  and  other  agencies,  are  often 
healed  over  by  the  growth  of  the  cells  of  the  cambium. 
Whenever  the  cambium  cells  form  an  extra  growth  in 
this  way,  it  is  called  callus.  Where  large  limbs  are 
removed,  it  takes  several  years  for  the  callus  to  grow 
over  the  wound.  When  trees  are  pruned,  the  exposed 
part  should  be  heavily  painted,  to  protect  it  till  the 
callus  can  have  time  to  grow  over  entirely.  (See  U  186, 
How  to  Make  the  Cuts  in  Pruning.) 


Fig.  25.  Cross-section  of  an  oak  stem,  showing 
the  "annular"  rings  at  J,  which  mark  the 
close  of  the  growing  season. 


Structure  and  Work  of  Stems 


37 


60.  The  Phloem  Portion  of  the  Stem  is  important, 
because  it  is  the  channel  through  which  the  food  sub- 
stances are  carried  from  the  leaves  to  the  roots.  The 
water  moves  up  through  the  woody  portion,  but  the 
food  material  moves  in 
the  phloem  part  of  the 
stem.  When  land  is  cleared 
of  large  trees,  the  stumps 
will  continue  to  form  water 
sprouts  for  a  long  time, 
unless  the  trees  are  first 
"deadened."  This  is  done 
by  cutting  off  the  bark 
entirely  around  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  thus  leaving  a 
strip  or  girdle  of  the  wood 
exposed.  This  does  not 
cause  the  immediate  death 
of  the  tree,  because  water 
can  move  up  to  the  leaves 
through  the  stems, 
as  before.  How- 
ever, no  food  can 
pass  down  to  the 
roots,  and  they 
finally  die  of  star- 
vation. When  the 
roots  die,  water  is  no  longer  absorbed,  as  the  living 
root -hairs  are  gone.  Girdling  kills  trees  by  starving 
the  roots.     (Fig.  26.) 

61.  Roots  May  Die  without  Girdling.  When  fruit 
trees  overbear,  nearly  all  the  food  formed  in  the  leaves 
goes  to  mature  the  fruit,  and  not  enough  goes  down  to 


SOLUBLE  5UB5TANCE5f 

Fig.  26.  Diagram  to  show  the  path  of  move- 
ment of  water  and  reserve  food  substances  in 
stemmed  plants. 


38  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

nourish  the  roots,  hence  the  trees  often  die  early  in 
the  following  spring.  Sometimes  a  severe  drought  pre- 
vents the  trees  from  forming  sufficient  food,  or  insects, 
fungous  diseases,  or  storms  destroy  all  the  leaves.  All 
the  reserve  food  is  used  up  in  an  effort  to  form  new 
leaves,  and  the  roots  die  of  starvation.  Transplanted 
trees  that  fail  to  make  a  good  growth  often  die  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  spring,  because  of  the  exhaustion 
of  their  reserve  food. 

62.  Perennial  Weeds  and  sprouts  from  stumps  may 
be  killed  by  constantly  destroying  all  leaf  growth.  Even 
though  it  does  not  kill  them  completely  the  first  season, 
it  may  weaken  them  to  such  an  extent  that  they  may 
be  more  easily  killed  by  other  means.  If  allowed  to 
grow  to  considerable  size,  the  roots  will  receive  food 
materials  sufficient  to  start  vigorous  new  growth. 

63.  Grasses  and  Weeds,  like  Johnson  grass,  that 
form  thick  rootstocks  are  difficult  to  destroy.  They 
may  be  killed  much  more  easily  if  they  are  kept  grazed 
down,  so  that  the  leaves  do  not  have  a  chance  to  form 
a  store  of  reserve  food  for  rootstocks.  The  half- 
starved  rootstock  is  much  more  easily  killed  than  the 
fully  nourished  one.  Roots  and  other  parts  of  plants, 
when  Doorly  nourished,  are  more  easily  killed  by  ex- 
posure to  cold,  heat  or  drought.  Hence,  if  such  root- 
stocks  are  prevented  from  forming  leaves  they  may 
die  more  quickly  when  exposed  by  plowing. 

63a.  Make  a  list  of  the  common  weeds  found  in  the  fields, 
orchards  and  gardens,  in  the  community.  Make  a  classified  list, 
putting  all  that  come  up  from  seed  and  mature  a  crop  of  seeds 
before  the  middle  of  the  summer  [spring  annuals]  in  one  column ; 
all  that  do  not  form  seeds  until  late  summer  or  fall  [annuals]  in  a 
second  column ;  and  in  a  third  column  name  all  that  live  over  win- 
ter by  underground  roots,  stems  or  root-stocks. 


Structure  and  Work  of  Stems  39 

64.  The  Storage  of  Reserve  Food.  Annual  plants  use 
their  food  supplies  as  fast  as  formed,  in  developing  the 
shoots  and  roots,  and,  particularly,  in  forming  flowers 
and  fruits.  Some  plants,  like  turnips,  cabbage,  radish, 
etc.,  store  the  surplus  food  in  the  stem,  leaves  or  roots 
during  the  first  season,  and  use  it  during  the  next  season 
to  nourish  a  large  crop  of  seeds.  If  grown  in  warm  cli- 
mates, these  plants  will  complete  the  cycle  in  one  sea- 
son. In  plants  that  live  from  year  to  year  (perennials), 
food  is  stored  up  in  the  stems  and  roots,  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  dormant  season,  and  also  to  form  the  new 
crop  of  root-hairs,  leaves  and  flowers  in  the  following 
spring.  It  is  the  reserve  food  in  the  stems  that  makes 
the  callus  and  new  roots  in  cuttings  of  roses,  privet, 
grape,  etc.    (See,  also,  T[  159.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  is  the  growing  point  of  the  stem?  2.  What  changes 
take  place  as  the  stem  lengthens?  3.  What  is  the  difference  in  the 
arrangement  of  wood  fibers  and  water  vessels  in  the  com  stalk 
and  in  plants  with  netted- veined  leaves?  4.  Where  is  the  cambium, 
and  what  is  its  work?  5.  How  are  the  wounds  on  plants  healed? 
6.  What  is  the  position  and  use  of  the  phloem  layer?  7.  Why  are 
trees  girdled?  8.  How  else  may  the  roots  of  a  tree  be  starved  to 
death?  9.  How  may  perennial  weeds  be  killed?  10.  How  may 
Johnson  grass  be  killed?    11.  What  are  the  uses  of  reserve  food? 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  PLANT  AS  RELATED  TO  THE  SOIL 

65.  The  Welfare  of  Plants  is  dependent  on  the  nature 
of  their  surroundings.  In  cultivation,  the  effort  is  to 
make  and  keep  the  environment  favorable.  In  open- 
field  culture,  little  can  be  done  to  change  the  air,  the 
temperature,  or  the  amount  of  light.  While  the  diffi- 
culty of  changing  the  environment  of  the  plant  above 
ground  is  great,  much  may  be  done  to  control  the  en- 
vironment under  the  ground.  The  fertihty  of  the  soil, 
the  amount  of  water,  the  temperature,  the  supply  of 
air,  and  other  conditions  affecting  the  growth  of  the 
root,  may  be  readily  changed.  A  knowledge,  then,  of 
the  habits  and  needs  of  roots,  and  of  how  to  make  the 
soil  conditions  favorable,  will  be  very  practical  infor- 
mation. 

66.  Uses  of  the  Soil  to  Plants,  (a)  Serves  as  a  foot- 
hold. The  roots  enter  the  soil  and  act  as  braces  to  keep 
the  plant  in  the  proper  position.  Plants  with  long  stems 
and  heavy  foliage  must  have  strong  roots  to  enable 
them  to  withstand  the  action  of  the  winds  and  other 
forces  that  would  displace  them. 

(b)  Supplies  the  plant  with  important  mineral  foods. 
The  amount  of  food  which  the  plant  takes  from  the  soil 
is  small,  as  has  already  been  seen,  only  about  5  per 
cent  of  its  dry  weight;  yet,  small  as  it  is,  these  mineral 
foods  are  absolutely  necessary. 

(c)  The  soil  acts  as  a  storehouse  for  water.   The  plant 

(40) 


The  Plant  as  Related  to  the  Soil 


41       ^ 


must  have  a  continuous  supply  of  water.  The  soil  is 
able  to  store  up  water  in  the  tiny  spaces  that  separate 
its  particles.  The  roots  penetrate  the  soil  aYid  take  up 
this  water  as  the  plant  needs  it.  Plants  can  not  take 
up  soUd  food.  All  food  substances  must  be  dissolved 
before  they  can  be 
absorbed.  Hence, 
water  is  important, 
not  only  as  a  food, 
but  also  as  a  sol- 
vent for  the  particles 
of  soil.  The  solutions 
pass  through  the  thin, 
delicate  membranes 
(cell-walls)  of  the  cells 
(the  root -hairs)  by  a 
process  known  as 
osmosis. 

(d)  It  retains  and 
regulates  the  tempera' 
ture. 

66a.  Absorption  of 
Water  by  Roots  Illustrated. 
The  upward  movement  of 
water  absorbed  by  plants 
may  be  easily  illustrated 
in  various  ways..  A  good 
way  is  to  cover  the  e^d 
of  a  lamp  chimney  with 
parchment  paper,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  27;  then  fill  one- 
fourth  full  with  syrup.  Support  the  chimney  in  a  vessel  of  water, 
with  the  syrup  at  the  level  of  the  water.  After  a  time,  it  will  be 
found  higher,  due  to  the  absorption  of  water  through  the  membrane. 
It  acts  like  a  large  root-hair,  which  absorbs  water  from  the  soil 
and  forces  it  upward  into  the  stems  and  leaves.    The  water  would 


Fig.  27.  To  illustrate  the  absorption  of 
water  by  roots.  The  plant  absorbs 
watar  against  the  force  of  gravity.  So 
will  a  salt  solution. 


42  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

not  be  absorbed  unless  the  chimney  contained  the  sugary  syrup 
or  some  similar  substance.  It  will  be  recalled  that  syrup  is  boiled- 
down  sap  from  cane  plants, 

A  solution  of  salt  in  the  chimney  would  cause  the  water  to  be 
absorbed  in  the  same  way  as  the  syrup,  because  salt,  like  sugar, 
makes  the  solution  stronger  and  denser.  Where  two  liquids  are 
separated  by  a  membrane,  more  water  always  goes  through  into 
the  stronger  solution.  The  bulk  of  the  liquid  in  the  chimney  is  thus 
increased,  and  is  forced  higher  in  the  chimney. 

67.  Conditions  Favorable  for  Root  Growth.    Not  all 

plants  require  the  same  conditions  for  perfect  develop- 
ment. All  require  some  degree  of  moisture.  Some 
plants  do  best  when  their  roots  are  totally  submerged 
in  water,  as  the  water-lily.  Some  land  plants  will  grow 
with  their  roots  in  water,  though  they  do  best  when 
the  roots  are  in  soil  that  contains  plenty  of  air  as  well 
as  water.  When  roots  grow  in  a  moist  and  very  fertile 
soil,  they  are  short,  but  have  hundreds  of  little  branches. 
This  gives  them  a  large  absorptive  surface,  enabling 
them  to  readily  take  up  the  water  and  mineral  food. 
When  the  soil  is  poor,  or  insufficiently  supplied  with 
moisture,  the  roots  grow  long  and  slender  and  have 
few  branches.  This  does  not  mean,  as  some  suppose, 
that  the  roots  are  ''  searching  for  food."  When  in  a 
fertile  soil,  roots  multiply  rapidly,  because  they  are 
well  nourished.  When  in  a  poor  soil,  where  the  mineral 
food  and  water  are  insufficient,  the  leaves  are  unable 
to  supply  the  roots  with  enough  sugar,  oils,  proteids, 
etc.,  to  make  the  roots  multiply  and  grow  rapidly. 
It  has  already  been  observed  that  roots  will  not  grow 
vigorously  w^hen  the  oxygen  of  the  air  is  excluded.  Plenty 
of  air  is  necessary  for  vigorous  growth. 

67a.  To  Show  that  Air  is  Necessary  for  Root  Growth,  use  two 
jars,  one  filled  "with  well-water,  as  shown  in  Fig.  28,  and  the  other 


The  Plant  as  Related  to  the  Soil 


43 


with  freshly  boiled  well-water.  The  water  should  be  boiled  to  drive 
out  all  the  oxygen,  and  a  layer  of  cooking  oil  used  to  prevent  more 
being  absorbed  from  the  air.  Insert  cuttings  of  willow  or  Wander- 
ing Jew,  and  keep  in  a  warm  place  for  a  week  or  more.  Note  the 
time  when  the  rootlets  appear  on  the  cuttings. 

68.  Moisture  Promotes  Root 
Growth  on  Stems.  A  continu- 
ous supply  of  moisture  stimu- 
lates root  growth.  Portions  of 
stems  kept  in  contact  with  moist 
soil  for  some  time  develop  roots, 
as  is  often  noticed  in  fallen  corn 
stalks,  tomato  vines,  and  pota- 
toes. To  make  roots  develop  on 
cuttings  of  roses,  figs,  grapes, 
etc.,  we  bury  them  in  moist 
sand,  loam,  or  sawdust.  (See 
1[194,  Layerage.) 

69.  The  Ideal  Soil  for  cultivated  plants  is  one  having 
an  abundant  supply  of  moisture,  containing  plenty  of 
soluble  plant  food,  and  so  porous  that  air  can  circulate 
freely  and  come  in  contact  with  the  roots.  The  soil 
may  be  too  dense,  or  so  compact  that  the  air  and  water 
cannot  circulate.  It  may  be  too  wet, — that  is,  have  so 
much  water  that  all  the  air  is  forced  out.  In  very  wet 
weather,  the  roots  are  often  noticed  growing  out  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

70.  Improving  the  Tilth  of  the  Soil.  We  have  already 
learned  that  the  particles  of  the  soil  should  be  suffi- 
ciently fine  for  the  root-hairs  to  grow  between  them. 
The  particles  may  be  so  fine  and  so  run  together  that 
neither  the  air  nor  the  root-hairs  can  enter  the  soil. 
This  condition  is  just  as  unfavorable  for  the  roots  as 
the  coarse,  lumpy  soil.    The  texture,  or  physical  con- 


FiG.  28.  To  show  that  roots  need 
air.  See  Paragraph  67a.  From 
First  Book  ou  Farming.  See  Ap- 
pendix A. 


44  Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 

dition,  of  the  soil  in  either  case  would  have  less  water- 
storage  space,  and  be  less  liable  to  set  free  liberal  supplies 
of  plant  food.  Some  soils  are  so  porous  and  loose  that 
the  moisture  drains  away,  and  the  air  circulates  so  freely 
that  they  dry  out  too  rapidly. 

71.  Capillary  Attraction  is  that  force  which  causes 
water  to  rise  in  tubes  or  between  particles  of  solid 
substances.  The  narrower  the  tube  the  higher  will  the 
liquid  rise  against  the  force  of  gravity.  Fine-grained 
soils  having  smaller  pores  or  spaces  between  their  par- 
ticles than  coarse-grained  soils,  will  lift  water  from 
below  nearer  to  the  surface  than  will  coarse-grained 
soils.  They  will  also  hold  more  moisture  in  satura- 
tion than  coarse  soils,  hence,  are  generally  the  bet- 
ter. Therefore,  thorough  tillage  of  the  soil  is  bene- 
ficial. 

72.  The  Problem  in  Soil  Management  is  to  bring  the 
soil  to  an  ideal  condition  for  the  healthy  growth  of  the 
roots.  Some  soils  must  have  the  particles  made  finer, 
and  some  must  be  made  coarser  by  causing  the  finer 
particles  to   combine. 

73.  How  to  Improve  the  Texture.  Good  texture  is 
important  and  dependent  on  the  size  of  the  soil  par- 
ticles. In  soil  treatment  the  object,  then,  is  to  find  the 
best  means  of  modifying  the  size  of  the  particles  until 
the  soil  is  mellow  and  friable.  There  are  three  general 
ways  of  changing  the  texture  of  the  soil: 

(a)  By  applying  mechanical  force,  as  in  the  opera- 
tions of  spading,  plowing,  harrowing,  etc.  This  acts 
directly  to  make  the  particles  finer.  If  heavy  clays 
or  black  waxy  land  are  tilled  while  wet,  the  particles 
are  forced  closer  together,  and  we  say  the  soil  is  "  pud- 
dled."   This  is  a  brickmaker's  term.    In  making  brick, 


The   Plant  as  Related  to  the  Soil 


45 


the  first  effort  is  to  destroy  the  granular  texture,  which 
is  done  by  wetting  and  working  the  clay.  Puddled 
clays  do  not  crumble  wh^n  dried  before  baking.  Neither 
will  a  soil  puddled  by  plowing  when  too  wet  crumble 
into  fine  particles  in  drying.    (See  H  105  and  Fig.  40.) 

(b)  By  exposing  the  soil  to  the  weathering  influences 
of  the  air,  frost,  sun,  snow, 
etc.  When  a  lump  or  clod  of 
stiff  soil  is  left  exposed  to 
the  alternate  wetting  of  the 
rain  and  drying  of  the  sun, 
it  breaks  up  into  many  smaller 
particles  and  becomes  mel- 
low. Without  this  weather- 
ing effect,  much  of  our  plow- 
ing would  be  worse  than 
useless.  The  land  often  breaks 
up  cloddy,  but  in  time  it 
becomes  mellow  and  loose. 
(Fig.  29.)  It  requires  time. 
In  order  that  a  soil  may  be 
in  the  best  condition  for  seed- 
ing, plowing  should  be  done 
long  before  planting  time  so 
that  the  weathering  influences 
may  have  ample  time  to  per- 
form their  work  thoroughly. 
Some  soils  will  weather  or 
crumble  promptly,  while 
others,  like  clay,  require  more  time.  Under  this  head 
should  be  included  some  of  the  effects  following  under- 
drairiage.  (See  Fig.  41.)  The  surplus  water  is  thus  carried 
off  and  air  takes  its  place,  and  the  soil  particles  crumble. 


Fig.  29.    Waiting  for  time  and  the 
rains  to  mellow  down  the  clods. 


46  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

(c)  By  applying  substances  which  act  chemically 
or  physically  upon  the  particles.  These  are  called  amend- 
ments, or  indirect  fertilizers.  Lime  is  a  familiar  example. 
It  renders  many  stiff  clay  soils  mellow,  and  cements  or 
binds  together  the  particles  of  a  sandy  soil.  Fertilizers 
are  also  amendments,  because  they  act  to  modify  the 
texture  of  the  soil  as  well  as  to  supply  mineral  plant 
food.  Evidence  is  not  wanting  that  the  good  effects  of  a 
fertilizer  are  sometimes  much  greater  than  the  amount 
of  mineral  food  supplied  would  allow  us  to  expect.  This 
is  probably  due  to  the  effect  of  the  fertilizer  on  the 
texture  of  the  soil  particles.  It  is  especially  true  of 
composts,  for  they  serve  not  only  to  supply  plant  food, 
but  also  to  Improve  the  texture  of  the  soil. 

74.  The  Texture  of  the  Soil  affects  the  yield  of  crops 
to  a  striking  degree.  To  improve  the  texture  is  often 
equivalent  to  an  application  of  a  fertilizer.  One  farmer 
will  raise  as  much  on  twenty-five  acres  as  another  will 
raise  on  forty  acres.  A  gardener  will  raise  as  large  a 
plant  in  a  small  pot  of  soil  as  a  farmer  does  in  a  yard 
of  soil.  It  seems  that  the  surface  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  root-hairs  in  the  pot  of  soil  may  be  equal  to  the 
yard  of  imperfectly  prepared  soil  in  the  field. 

75.  A  Soil  is  in  Good  Tilth  when  the  particles  are  small 
enough  for  all  the  root-hairs  to  find  a  surface  upon  which 
they  may  act.  A  soil  in  good  tilth  exposes  a  large  sur- 
face to  the  slow  action  of  water,  air  and  roots.  (Fig.  30.) 
A  coarse,  lumpy  soil  may  contain  an  abundance  of  plant 
food,  but  still  make  poor  crops.  If  we  take  a  cube  and  cut 
it  into  halves,  we  increase  the  surface  exposed  by  one-third ; 
we  add  two  sides.  By  dividing  again,  we  increase  the 
surface  in  the  same  ratio.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  lump  of 
soil,  when  sufficiently  fined  to  be  in  good  tilth,  exposes  a 


The  Plant  as  Related  to  the  Soil 


47 


large  surface  to  the  action  of  the  root-hairs.  Professor 
King  has  figured  out  the  result.*  ''Suppose  we  take  a 
marble  exactly  one  inch  in  diameter.  It  will  just  slip 
inside  a  cube  one  inch  on  a  side,  and  will  hold  a  film 
of  water  3.1416  square  inches  in  area.  But  reduce  the 
marble  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch  and  at  least  1,000  of  them 
will  be  required  to  fill  the 
cubic  inch,  and  their  aggre- 
gate surface  area  will  be 
31.416  square  inches.  If, 
however,  the  diameter  of 
these  spheres  be  reduced  to 
one-hundredth  of  an  inch, 
1,000,000  of  them  will  be 
required  to  fill  a  cubic  inch 
and  their  total  surface  area 
will  be  314.16  square  inches. 
Suppose,  again,  that  the  soil 
particles  have  a  diameter  of 
one-thousandth  of  an  inch. 
It  will  then  require  1,000,- 
000,000  of  them  to  com- 
pletely fill  the  cubic  inch  and 
their  aggregate  surface  area 
must  measure  3141.59  square 
inches."  All  in  one  cubic 
inch  of  soil.  When  all  the 
surfaces  are  moist,  it  is  then 
perfectly  plain  why  a  fine  soil  will  withstand  more  drought 
and  give  more  root-feeding  surface  than  a  coarse  soil. 

76.  Root-Hairs  Absorb  Plant  Food.  Root-hairs  absorb 
the  water  that  covers  the  soil  particles  as  thin  films. 

*King.  The  Soil. 


Fig.  30.   A  soil  in  good  tilth. 


48  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

They  also  take  in  some  of  the  substances  that  are  dis- 
solved in  the  soil  moisture.  Root-hairs  give  off  carbonic 
acid  gas  and  possibly  other  acids,  which  help  to  dissolve 
some  substances  in  the  soil.  This  may  be  easily  demon- 
strated by  allowing  roots  to  grow  on  a  polished  marble 
slab. 

77.  The  Amount  of  Root  Growth  is  large.  A  plant 
must  have  a  large  root  surface  to  absorb  enough  water 
to  make  up  for  the  loss  from  a  large  leaf  surface.  A  large 
leaf  surface  is,  of  course,  beneficial,  because  it  means  so 
much  more  surface  for  absorbing  the  carbon  dioxid  and 
energy  from  the  sun's  rays.  There  must,  however,  be  a 
balance  between  the  activities  of  the  root  surface  and 
the  leaf  surface. 

78.  The  Distribution  of  Roots  in  the  soil  varies  with 
the  kind  and  condition  of  the  soil,   but,   rou,2:hly,   the 


Fig.  31.   When  trees  are  dug  up,  the  large  roots  are  found  spreading  in  the 
first  few  feet  of  soil.   These  roots  had  a  spread  of  forty  teet. 


The  Plant  as  Related  to  the  Soil  49 

roots  are  said  to  spread  through  an  area  equal  to  that 
shaded  by  the  branches.  Only  in  exceptional  conditions 
do  the  roots  extend  very  deeply  into  the  soil.  Even  in 
forest  trees,  the  most  vigorous  roots  are  found  in  the 
first  foot  or  two  of  soil.  In  young  trees,  the  tap-root 
is  often  noticed  to  grow  directly  down  for  some  distance, 
but,  when  the  trees  are  old,  the  side  roots  will  be  found 
to  be  many  times  larger.    (See  Fig.  31.) 

79.  The  Total  Length  of  the  Roots  is  very  great.  'Hell- 
riegel*  noted  that  a  vigorous  barley  plant  in  a  rich  porous 
garden  soil  had  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  feet  of 
roots,  while  another  growing  in  coarse-grained,  compact 
soil  had  only  eighty  feet  of  roots.  One-fortieth  of  a  cubic 
foot  sufficed  for  these  roots.  It  may  be  readily  under- 
stood that  all  the  soil  was  occupied.  Professor  Clark, 
after  making  a  number  of  measurements,  estimated  that 
a  vigorous  pumpkin  vine  had  fifteen  miles  of  roots  and 
gained  one  thousand  feet  per  day.  Professor  King,  of 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  estimates  that  if 
all  the  roots  of  a  vigorous  corn  plant  were  put  end- 
to-end  they  would  measure  more  than  one  mile  in 
length. 

80.  The  Vertical  Distribution  of  Roots  is  affected 
to  a  large  extent  by  the  depth  of  the  plow  line,  particu- 
larly so  on  stiff  clay  soils.  The  roots  extend  much  deeper 
in  dry  seasons  than  in  wet  ones.  These  facts  have  been 
found  out  by  carefully  washing  the  soil  away  from  the 
roots,  leaving  them  supported  on  poultry  netting. 
These  observations  are  easily  explained  when  we  con- 
sider the  effect  of  tillage  on  soil  conditions.    Fig.  32 

♦Herman  Hellriegel  (1831-1895)  devoted  his  life  to  the  study  of  the 
chemistry  of  plant  nutrition.  He  was  the  first  to  discover  the  relation  of  the 
bacteria  causing  the  tubercles  on  the  roots  of  legumes  to  the  fixation  of  free 
nitrogen.    He  made  many  other  important  discoveries  in  agricultural  science. 


50 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


illustrates  the  appearance  of  the  roots  of  a  corn  plant 
at  silking  time. 

81.  Shall  Crops  be  Tilled  Deep  or  Shallow?  It  is  im- 
portant that  we  know  the  distribution  of  the  roots  in 
the  soils  that  are  cultivated  with  plows;  otherwise  we 
might  plow  too  deep  and  destroy  many  roots.  At  one 
of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  it  was  found 
that   thirty   days   after   planting   corn,    at   the   second 


Fig.  32.    The  root  development  of  a  corn  plant  just  beginning  to  tassel.     From 
Photo  made  at  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  University  of  Illinois. 

cultivation,  the  roots  from  the  adjacent  hills  (three  feet 
apart)  had  already  met.  A  few  roots  had  reached  a 
depth  of  twelve  inches,  but  the  bulk  of  the  roots  were 
within  eight  inches  of  the  surface.  Six  inches  from 
the  hill,  the  main  roots  were  within  two  or  three  inches 
of  the  surface.  Midway  between  the  drills  they  lay 
within  four  inches  of  the  surface.  Deep  plowing  at  this 
time  with  shovel-pointed  plows  would  certainly  have 
Injured  many  roots. 


The  Plant  as  Related  to  the  Soil  51 

82.  The  Condition  of  the  Soil  has  great  influence  on 
the  distribution  of  the  roots.  Where  the  surface  layers 
are  moist  the  roots  will  grow  freely  in  these  layers,  but 
if  dry  spells  come  the  plants  will  suffer  more  than  plants 
that  have  been  growing  on  soils  less  favorably  supplied 
with  moisture.  This  explains  why  it  is  best,  in  watering 
lawns,  to  give  them  a  heavy  drenching  rather  than  a 
frequent  sprinkling  of  the  surface,  so  that  the  water 
will  soak  down  into  the  deeper  layers. 

83.  Grass-like  Plants  are  without  tap-roots.  They 
form  a  number  of  fine  roots  near  the  surface,  and  are 
hence  known  as  ''surface  feeders."  Other  plants,  like 
cotton,  alfalfa,  peanuts  and  beans,  have  strong  tap-roots 
that  branch  out  in  the  lower  layers  of  soil,  and  are  for 
this  reason  called  "deep  feeders."  We  must  not  conclude 
from  this  that  the  small  grains  do  not  have  deep-feeding 
roots.  Notwithstanding  the  small  diameter  of  the  root 
branches,  some  of  them  penetrate  the  soil  much  below 
the  surface  layers,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  32. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  conditions  of  open-field  culture  are  under  our  control? 
2.  What  are  the  uses  of  soil  to  a  plant?  3.  What  kinds  of  roots 
grow  in  moist,  fertile  soils?  4.  What  kind  in  poor  soil?  5.  What  is 
an  ideal  soil  for  plants?  6.  What  conditions  of  soil  particles  prevent 
the  right  supply  of  food?  7.  What  are  the  three  general  ways  of 
changing  the  texture  of  the  soil?   8.  When  is  a  soil  in  good  tilth? 

9,  Why  is  it  necessary  for  a  plant  to  have  a  Ikrge  root  surface? 

10.  What  is  the  general  rule  as  to  the  distribution  of  roots?  11.  What 
is  the  effect  of  moisture  on  the  downward  distribution  of  roots? 

12.  Shall  crops  be  tilled  deep  or  shallow?  Discuss  this  question. 

13.  Why  are  the  grasses  called  surface  feeders?  14.  Explain  how 
deep  breaking  of  the  soil  makes  a  larger  and  better  home  for  the 
roots. 


CHAPTER  X 
SOILS  AND  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

84.  From  what  we  have  learned,  we  recognize  that 
the  proper  management  of  soils  should  be  such  as  to: 

(a)  Provide  the  plant  with  an  adequate  supply  of 
available  soil  moisture  at  all  times. 

(b)  Put  the  soil  in  such  tilth  that  the  roots  can  find 
abundant  supplies  of  the  important  soil  nutrients. 

(c)  Provide  for  the  removal  of  the  surplus  water 
(drainage)  that  would  fill  up  the  air  spaces  and  prevent 
the  proper  development  of  the  roots. 

(d)  Make  the  soil  sufficiently  loose  so  that  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  and  the  water  in  the  soil  may  circulate  freely. 

85.  Classification  of  Soils.  Before  we  can  intelli- 
gently discuss  the  problems  of  soil  management  we  should 
learn  more  about  the  properties  of  the  different  kinds 
of  soils.  By  ''soil"  we  mean  that  layer  of  the  earth's 
crust  which  is  formed  from  finely  broken-up  rocks  and 
decayed  plants  and  animal  remains.  Soils  are  variously 
classified  according  to  origin*,  method  of  formation, 
chemical  composition,  physical  properties,  or  adaptations 
to  kinds  of  crops.  It  will  be  advisable  for  us  first  to 
learn  more  of  the  properties  of  the  substances  that 
compose  the  various  kinds  of  soils. 

86.  Origin  of  Soils.  The  geologist  classifies  soils 
according  to  their  origin  and  conditions  of  formation. 
He  tells  us  that  all  soils  have  been  formed  by  the  gradual 
breaking  up  of  rocks.   Fig.  33  shows  a  mountain  of  rock 

♦See  chapters  on  Erosion  in  any  text-book  on  geology  or  physical  geography. 
(52) 


Soils  and  Soil  Management  53 

being  slowly  but  surely  converted  into  soil.  The  large 
boulders  break  and  fall  from  the  cliffs,  and  by  the  weath- 
ing  of  the  rains,  frosts  and  other  agencies,  they  are 
worn  away.  The  finer  particles  are  washed  down  the 
hillsides  into  the  valley  below,  forming  the  rich  valley 
soil.  Soils  formed  in  this  way  by  the  deposit  of  the 
sediment  from  running  water  are  called  sedimentary 
soils.    In  some  cases  the  rocks  break  up  and  are  not 


•  Fig.  ;.S3.     Soil  formation.  Rain,  frost  and  plants  all  assist  in  changing  the  moun- 


54  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

removed    by    flowing    water.     Such    soils    are    referred 
to  as  residual  soils. 

86a.  Weigh  a  fruit  jar  and  fill  with  the  muddy  water  flowing 
from  the  field  after  a  heavy  rain.  Let  stand  until  the  water  is  clear^ 
and  note  the  amount  of  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  jar. 

86b.  Weigh  the  jar  again,  pour  off  the  clear  water,  leaving  the 
thick  sediment.  Dry  and  weigh  the  sediment,  and  calculate  the 
per  cent  of  sediment  in  the  muddy  water. 

87.  Other  Classifications.  A  convenient  and  natural 
classification  of  soils  is  often  made  according  to  the 
color,  texture  and  structure  of  the  soil  layers.  We  com- 
monly speak  of  a  soil  as  consisting  of  a  surface  soil  and 
a  subsoil. 

The  surface  soil  includes  the  top  layer  of  soil — ''that 
which  is  moistened  by  the  rains,  warmed  by  the  sun, 
permeated  by  the  atmosphere,  in  which  the  plant  ex- 
tends its  roots,  gathers  its  soil-food,  and  which,  by  the 
decay  of  the  subterranean  organs  of  vegetation,  ac- 
quires a  content  of  humus."  The  surface  soil  may  be 
subdivided  further  into  surface  soil  and  sub-surface  soil; 
the  surface  soil  proper,  or  soil  mulch,  includes  the  layer 
of  top  soil  that  is  moved  about  by  the  ordinary  operations 
of  tillage;  and  the  sub -surface  soil  refers  to  the  layer 
of  surface  soil  that  is  just  beneath  the  soil  mulch,  thus 
being  a  part  of  the  surface  soil  and  yet  is  not  stirred 
by  ordinary  inter-tillage. 

The  subsoil  is  the  layer  just  below  the  surface  soil, 
and  in  all  soils  it  is  taken  to  mean  the  second  layer, 
showing  characteristiq  differences  from  the  surface 
soil.  Sometimes  the  subsoil,  or  a  layer  just  beneath  the 
top  layer  of  the  subsoil,  may  consist  of  a  hard,  stiff  layer 
of  clay  or  other  compacted  material,  impermeable  to 
water  and  air.  This  is  spoken  of  as  hard-pan.  It  is  often 
absent  altogether,  or  it  may  be  at  various  depths.    It 


Soils  and  Soil  Management  55 

may  be  considered  as  a  condition  of  the  subsoil  rather 
than  as  a  different  material,  where  it  is  composed 
of  the  same  material  as  the  subsoil. 

88.  Sand.  Sand  is  broken-up  fragments  of  a  mineral 
called  quartz,  or  flint.  It  often  occurs  mixed  with  con- 
siderable quantities  of  coarse  gravel.  Pure  white  sand 
is  almost  valueless  for  agricultural  purposes,  because  it 
supplies  no  needed  mineral  element.  However,  it  rarely 
occurs  pure,  but  mixed  with  other  minerals  that  supply 
plant  food.  Sandy  soils  are  usually  classed  as  ''Ughf 
soils  because  of  the  light  draft  in  plowing.  They  are  in 
reality  very  heavy,  for  a  cubic  foot  of  air-dry  sand  will 
weigh  over  a  hundred  pounds,  whereas  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  clay  will  weigh  only  about  eighty  pounds.  The 
grains  of  sand  are  rounded,  and  so  there  are  spaces  be- 
tween them.  This  allows  water  and  gases  to  move  easily 
through  sandy  soils.  Because  of  their  open  nature,  sandy 
soils  readily  take  in  large  quantities  of  water.  For  the 
same  reason,  they  allow  it  to  drain  off  or  evaporate 
quickly.  Sandy  soils  are  usually  drier  and  better  aerated, 
and  will,  for  this  reason,  warm  up  sooner  than  other 
soils  and  are,  hence,  preferred  for  growing  early  vege- 
tables. 

89.  Clay,  in  an  agricultural  sense,  includes  any  soil 
composed  largely  of  very  fine  particles,  which  gives  the 
land  a  close,  compact,  adhesive  nature.  Clay,  as  used 
by  chemists  and  potters,  refers  to  the  disintegrated  mass 
of  certain  kinds  of  rocks.  The  several  kinds  of  clay  soils 
vary  widely  in  chemical  composition,  physical  proper- 
ties, and  fertility.  Usually,  however,  clay  soils  are  very 
productive.  Clay  has  the  property  of  absorbing  large 
quantities  of  water,  often  as  much  as  from  50  to  75 
per  cent  of'  its  own  weight.    Even  the  dry  clay  road 


66  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

dust  may  have  as  much  as  10  per  cent  of  water.  When 
wet,  clays  become  sticky  and  impervious  to  water  and 
air,  and,  of  course,  root  growth  cannot  take  place  when 
the  soil  is  in  this  condition.  If  kneaded  or  puddled  by 
working  at  this  time,  it  does  not  crumble  on  drying. 
Clay  particles  have  a  tendency  to  cling  together  in  small 
lumps,  or  floccules,  especially  if  Ume  is  present.  This 
makes  them  more  open  and  porous,  and  Ughtens  the 
draft  in  plowing.  Water  evaporates  slowly  from  clay 
soils.* 

90.  Calcareous,  or  Limy  Soils.  Many  fertile  soils 
contain  large  quantities  of  crumbled  Umestone  (car- 
bonate of  calcium).  The  presence  of  lime  in  a  soil  may 
be  easily  detected  by  the  effervescence  (giving  off  of 
gas)  when  treated  with  acids.  Strong  vinegar  will 
answer.  Try  it  on  some  lumps  of  soil.  Finely  pul- 
verized limestone  has  physical  properties  similar  to 
clay.  Lime  tends  to  improve  clay  soils  by  making 
them  more  granular  and  porous.  Lime  also  acts  bene- 
ficially on  sandy  soils  by  increasing  their  water-hold- 
ing power.  The  fertile  black  lands  of  Texas  contain 
from  5  to  40  per  cent  of  carbonate  o£  lime.  Soils  low 
in  lime  often  become  sour  or  acid,  (H  141.) 

90a.  Effect  of  Lime  on  Clay  Soils.  Take  about  three  pounds  of 
stiff  clay  soil  and  work  into  a  soft  plastic  mass  by  wetting  and 
kneading.  Divide  into  three  equal  parts.  Round  one  into  a  ball 
and  put  on  a  board.  Work  the  second  up  with  an  equal  volume  of 
air-slaked  lime,  and  the  third  with  half  as  much  air-slaked  lime. 
Put  all  three  on  a  board  and  let  dry.  Describe  the  results.  What 
is  the  effect  of  the  lime  on  clay  soils? 

90b.  Effect  of  Lime  on  Clay  Particles.  Clay  settles  slowly  in  water. 
The  particles  are  so  fine  that  they  float  in  water  like  dust  in  the  air. 
Rub  up  some  clay  in  water  until  the  water  is  turbid.   Pour  a  little 

*Are  the  clay  soils  of  your  community  classed  as  drought-resistant  soils? 


Soils  and  Soil  Management  57 

of  this  turbid  water  into  lime  water.*  What  happens  to  the  particles 
of  clay  suspended  in  the  water? 

91.  Humus  is  the  term  applied  to  partly  decayed 
plant  and  animal  remains,  and  is  well  illustrated  by 
the  leaf-mold  found  under  the  trees  in  a  dense  forest. 
Humus  gives  to  the  soil  a  characteristic  blackish  color, 
and  adds  greatly  to  its  fertility  It  improves  the 
water-holding  power  in  a  noticeable  degree,  often 
to  double  the  original  water-storing  power.  It  makes 
clay  soils  mellow  and  sandy  soils  compact.  Humus  is 
formed  by  the  decay  of  the  roots,  leaves,  etc.,  in  virgin 
soils.  The  farmer  is  able  to  increase  the  humus  in  the 
soil  by  adding  compost  directly,  and  by  plowing  under 
straw  and  green  crops,  like  cow-peas,  etc.  (See  ^  131, 
Green  Manuring.) 

92.  Examination  of  Soils. f  An  experimental  study 
of  the  several  kinds  of  soils,  especially  of  those  occurring 
in  the  school  district,  should  be  made,  and,  if  a  sufficient 
number  of  different  kinds  are  not  close  at  hand,  others 
may  be  secured.  These  various  kinds  of  soil  consist  of 
mixtures  of  varying  amounts  of  sand,  clay,  limestone 
dust,  and  half-decayed  plant  remains.  The  fertility  and 
water-holding  power  will  bear  some  relation  to  the 
amounts  of  these  separate  substances  composing  the 
soil. 

*To  prepare  lime  water,  secure  a  large-mouthed  bottle  or  fruit  jar.  Fill 
half-full  with  water.  Add  lime,  a  little  at  a  time,  until  a  good  handful  is  used, 
CJork  securely,  to  keep  out  the  air,  and  let  stand.  The  lime  will  settle  to  the 
bottom  and  the  clear  liquid  above  is  lime  water. 

tThe  direct  examination  of  the  samples  of  soil,  as  outlined  in  this  chapter, 
may  be  conducted  by  any  boy  or  girl  with  little  or  no  assistance  from  the  teacher. 
A  word  of  caution  may  be  given  to  the  student.  He  should  be  reasonably 
familiar  with  the  theory  of  the  work  he  is  to  undertake,  and  what  questions  his 
results  may  answer.  Too  often  he  will  want  to  say  that  he  is  "going  to  prove" 
so  and  so.  He  should  be  cautioned  to  "  find  out"  if  so  and  so  is  trtie  or  not  true' 
This  is  the  attitude  of  the  true  student. 


58 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


11 


93.  Size  of  Soil  Particles.  In  recent  studies  on  Ameri- 
can soils,  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  size  of  the  particles  in  good  agricul- 
tural soils.  Fig.  34 
shows  how  two  soils 
may  differ  in  this 
respect.  In  noting 
the  size  of  the  soil 
particles,  we  should 
distinguish  between 
the  actual  size  of 
the  minute  particles 
or  fragments  of  rocks 
and  the  soil  floccules, 
or  granules  formed 
by  the  sticking  to- 
gether of  a  number  of 
very  small  particles. 
93a.  Examination  to 
Observe  the  Size  of  the 
Soil  Granules.  Secure  a 
half-dozen  lumps  of  soil 
from  the  moist  layers 
beneath  the  surface,  and 
put  into  a  fruit  jar  three- 
fourths  full  of  water. 
Screw  on  the  top  and 
shake  vigorously  for 
some  minutes,  and  allow 
to  settle.  Describe  the  layers  formed  after  standing  one  hour  or 
more  Note  the  differences  in  size  of  the  granules  of  the  soil.  Apply 
the  same  treatment  to  a  handful  of  garden  soil;  to  a  sample  of  stiff 
clay  soil. 

93b.  Secure  a  good  handful  of  soil  and  moisten  and  work  till 
a  very  thin,  even  paste  is  formed.  Place  in  a  jar.  as  in  H  92a,  and 
shake.  Allow  to  stand  until  the  particles  have  all  settled  to  the  hot- 


Fig.  34.  Showing  the  amounts  of  the  particles 
of  different  size  in  two  kinds  of  soils.  From 
Bureau  of  Soils,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


Soils  and  Soil  Management 


59 


torn.  Observe  the  different  layers.  The  coarse  material  at  the  bot- 
tom is  probably  sand.  Above  this  will  be  a  layer  of  finer  particles 
consisting  largely  of  clay,  the  finest  particles  of  which  remain  in 
suspension  in  the  water,  making  it  turbid  Small  particles  of  vege- 
table matter  may  be  found  floating  on  the  surface.  The  separation 
of  the  particles  will  be  more  complete  if  a  small  quantity  of 
ammonia  be  added  to  the  water. 

Estimate  the  amount  of  sand  and  clay  in  the  samples.  What 
effect  did  working  the  soil  into  a  paste  have  on  the  size  of  the  granules? 

Make  similar  tests  with  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  soils. 
Make  a  table  as  shown  below,  and  record  your  observation  for  each 
sample  of  soil. 

93c.  Classify  the  soils  examined  according  to  the  following 
scheme.   Estimate  the  amounts  of  the  sand  or  clay. 


Kind  of  soil 


Sandy   .... 
Sandy  loam 

Loam 

Clay  loam. . 
Clay 


Per  cent 
of  sand 
present 


80-100 
60-  80 
40-  60 
20-  40 
0-  20 


Color 

of  fresh 

soil 


Productive 
or  unpro- 
ductive 


Drought 

resistant 

or  not 


Heavy 

or  light 

draft 


Remarks 


93d.  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  of  Soil.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to 
use  a  full  cubic  foot.  Small,  rectangular  boxes  may  be  made  and 
then  carefully  measured  for  their  inside  dimensions.  The  dirt 
may  be  put  in  these  and  weighed,  and  the  results  calculated  to  a 
cubic  foot.  Three-pound  tomato  cans,  with  the  tops  melted  off, 
may  be  used  in  the  same  way.  The  samples  of  soils  should  be 
thoroughly  dry  and  free  from  coarse  lumps.  A  sample  of  every 
type  of  soils  in  the  community  should  be  used. 

94.  Temperature  of  Soils.  Soils  have  the  power  of 
absorbing  the  heat  from  the  sun's  rays.  If  they  absorb 
the  heat  readily  they  are  called  warm  soils,  and  if  slowly, 
cold  soils.  Dry  soils  get  warm  much  more  quickly  than 
moist  soils.  Barefooted  boys  know  that  the  dry  sands 
and  fine  clay  road  dust  become  warm  more  quickly 
than  moist  soils. 


60 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


~i 

F 

19 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

11' 

// 

\\ 

lO 

/ 

\ 

\ 

1 

/ 

\ 

// 

\ 

n 

J 

1 

«• 

z 

"dAM.  10AM.  aM.-^EKL4:eM.  6RM. 

Fig.  35.  Temperature 
curves  of  dry  and  wet 
soils. 


The  amount  of  water  in  the  soil  affects  the  tem- 
perature more  than  the  kind  of  soil.  Much  heat  is  re- 
quired to  warm  and  dry  out  wet 
soils.  Most  of  the  heat  is  consumed 
in  evaporating  the  water.  The 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  soil 
may  be  compared  to  the  evapo- 
ration of  sweat  from  the  body, 
because  it  cools  the  soil,  just  as 
evaporation  cools  the  body 

The  texture  of  the  soil  also 
affects  the  temperature.  Coarse 
rocky  or  lumpy  soils  suffer  from 
sudden  changes  in  temperature. 
Loose  and  well-  cultivated  soils 
absorb  and  retain  the  sun's  heat 
best;  and  the  temperature  in  such  soils  is  more  uniform. 
The  color  of  the  soil  affects  the  amount  of  heat 
absorbed  from  the  sun's  rays.  Dark-colored  bodies 
absorb  the  heat  rays  more  readily  than  light  ones.  This 
explains  why  dark  soils  are  warmer  than  light  soils. 

While  a  compact  soil  will  absorb  heat  more  rapidly 
from  the  sun's  rays  than  a  loose  one,  it  will  also  lose  heat 
more  quickly,  because  of  the  more  rapid  conduction 
of  the  heat  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  lost  by  radiation. 
Moist  soils  warm  up  more  slowly  than  dry  ones,  be- 
cause the  heat  is  used  up  in  warming  and  evaporating 
the  water.    (Fig.  35.) 

94a.  Absorption  of  Heat]  from  the  Sun  by  Dry  Soils.  Air-dry 
soils  should  be  put  into  uniform  vessels  Gardeners'  flats  are 
quite  suitable.  Insert  ordinary  dairy  thermometers  into  the  soil  for 
about  two  inches  and  note  the  temperature  in  each  box.  Put  the 
box  in  strong  sunlight  and  make  readings  at  8,  10,  12,  2.  4,  and 
6  o'clock.    Record  the  temperature  as  shown  in  Fig.  35. 


Soils  and  Soil  Management 


61 


94b.  Rate  of  Cooling  of  Dry  Soils.  The  same  boxes  used  in  t  93a 
may  be  used.  Note  readings  when  placed  in  sunlight  at  8,  10,  and 
12.  Then  put  in  shade  and  note  the  temperature  at  2,  4,  and  6. 
Which  kind  of  soil  cooled  quickest?  What  soils  retained  their  heat 
longer?  Do  the  soils  that  warm  quickly  cool  quickly?  What  soils 
would  you  class  as  "warm  soils?" 

940.  Absorption  of  Heat  by  Moist  Soils.  Use  same  boxes  of  soils 
as  above,  but  add  same  amount  of  water  to  each,  and  make 
readings  when  exposed  to  sunlight  from  8  until  4.  The  cans  or 
boxes  should  be  weighed  at  the  beginning,  and,  when  through 
with  the  test  in  this  experiment,  weighed  again  for  results  in  H  95a, 
noting  loss  of  weight  in  each. 

94d.  Loss  of  Heat  by  Moist  Soils.  As  above  in  1[  94b.  The  same 
boxes  may  be  used. 

95.  Soil  Mulch.  The  rain  falling  on  the  surface 
causes  the  many  fine  lumps  of  soil  to  crumble  and 
run  together,  and  leaves  the  surface  covered  by  a  closely 
compacted  layer  or  crust.  This  condition  of  the  soil  is 
very  favorable  for  the  rapid  evaporation  of  the  capillary 
water.  When  the  surface  becomes  dry,  the  water  below 
will  move  rapidly  to  the  surface  and  the  soil  will  soon 
become  dry.  The  thrifty  farmer  destroys  this  crust 
just  as  soon  as  the  surface  layer  can  be  harrowed  or 
plowed.  He  thus  destroys  the  close  capillary  connection 
formed  between  the  surface  and  sub-surface  soil.  The  soil 
mulch  should  be  two  or  three  inches  thick.    (Fig.  36.) 


Fig.  36.  How  cultivation  retards  surface  evaporation.  The  position  of  ground 
water  after  fifty-nine  days,  and  the  per  cent  of  water  in  the  soil  at  different 
depths.  The  shaded  plots  were  cultivated.  After  King.  University  of 
Wisconsin. 


62 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


95a.  Rate  of  Loss  of  Water.  Use  three-pound  tomato  cans. 
Put  equal  volume  of  air-dry  soil  of  different  kinds  in  each,  and  add 
same  amount  of  water  to  each.  At  4  o'clock  each  day,  note  the 
amount  of  water  lost  from  each  kind  of  soil  during  four  separate 
days,  and  calculate  the  per  cent  of  total  water  lost  for  each  day. 
Record  the  results  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Weight  at  begin- 
ning 


End  of 
first 
day 


End  of 

second 

day 


End  of 
third 
day 


End  of 

fourth 

day 


Per 
cent 


Sandy  soil . .  . .  . 

Clay  soil 

Garden  soil    . .  . 
Coarse  gravel . . 


95b.  Rate  of  Rise  of  Water  Through  Soils  of  Different  Texture. 

For  this  test,  a  number  of  ordinary  lamp  chimneys  serve  a  ry  well, 
because  the  results  may  be  easily  observed.  These  may  be  se  ired  at 
stores.  Select  three  samples  of  soil:  one  sand,  one  clay,  and  one  a  soil 
with  much  humus.  Prepare  two  chimneys  of  each  kind  of  soil,  as  fol- 
lows: Close  the  tops  of  the  chimneys  with  muslin.  In  number  one, 
let  the  soil  particles  drop  lightly  into  the  chimney  and  remain  very 
loose.    In  nmnber  two,  pour  in  a  little  at  a  time  and  press  slightly 

with  a  stick.  Do  not 
try  to  make  too  com- 
pact, lest  the  chim- 
ney be  broken.  Put 
all  the  chimneys  in  a 
vessel  of  water,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  37, 
and  note  the  rise  of 
the  moisture  every 
recess  hour. 

What  effect  does 
compacting  the  soils 
have  on  the  quick- 
ness with  which  they 
absorb  water  in  sand? 
In  clay?  In  humus? 


Fig.  37.   To  test  the  rise  of  water  through  soils  of 
different  texture. 


Soils  and  Soil  Management 


63 


95c.  Effect  of  Mulches  on  Evaporation  of  Water  from  Soils. 
Secure  seven  or  eight  three-pound  tomato  cans  from  which  the 
tops  have  been  carefully  melted  off  to  leave  smooth  rims.  Fill 
three  of  the  cans  full  to  the  upper  edge  with  clean,  dry  sand  or  other 
soil.  Fill  the  remaining  ones  within  one  inch  of  the  top.  Weigh 
the  cans  separately  when  dry,  and  add  the 
same  amount  of  water  to  each  one  and  note  the 
weight.  Prepare  the  mulches  as  indicated  below, 
and  weigh  again.    Set  in  a    convenient    place 


Fig.  3S.  Consuming  soil  moisture.  Loss  in  seven  days:  A,  packed  surface, 
8i  oz.  water;  B,  fine  chopped  straw,  2  ^z.  water;  C,  covered  with  loose  sand, 
1  o'   water;  D,  dust  mulch,  3  oz.  water;  E,  young  oat  plants,  10  oz.  water. 

where  they  will  all  be  exposed  to  the  same  conditions.  Weigh 
daily  for  one  week  or  ten  days,  and  record  the  loss  of  weight  for 
each  can  on  the  following  table.  The  difference  in  loss  will  approxi- 
mate the  power  of  these  separate  mulches  to  retard  evapora- 
tion from  the  surface.  Give  all  the  cans  the  same  exposure  to 
light  and  wind. 

Effect  of  Mulches  on  Evaporation 


First  day 

Second  day 

Third  day 

No.  of 
can 

Weight 

Loss 
of  weight 

Weight 

Loss 
of  weight 

Weight 

Loss 
of  weight 

1 

2  .... 

3  .... 

4  .... 

5  .... 

6  .... 

7  .... 

64  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

1.  Not  mulched.    (Check  or  control.) 

2.  Surface  cultivated  one  inch  deep  (soil  mulch). 

3.  Surface  cultivated  two  inches  deep  (soil  mulch). 

4.  Mulch  with  one  inch  of  coarse  gravel. 

5.  Mulch  with  one  inch  of  sawdust. 

6.  Mulch  with  one  inch  of  fine  sand. 

7.  Mulch  with  one  inch  of  fine  cut  straw. 
Which  mulch  is  most  effective? 

Which  mulch  is  most  practical  under  field  conditions? 
What  other  conditions  affect  evaporation  from  the  soil? 

96.  Soil  Moisture  Retained  by  Cultivation.  Professor 
King  has  investigated  the  efficiency  of  surface  culti- 
vation in  retaining  water  in  the  soil.  A  piece  of  fallow 
ground  was  divided  into  plots  twelve  feet  wide,  as  shown 
in  diagram  in  Fig.  36.  Three  were  cultivated  and  two 
left  fallow.  The  figures  in  the  table  show  the  percentage 
of  water  in  the  soil  of  each  plot,  at  different  depths,  at 
the  end  of  fifty-nine  days.  The  average  loss  of  water 
from  the  cultivated  plots  was  709.4  tons  per  acre,  while 
in  the  non-cultivated  plots  the  loss  was  862.3  tons 
per  acre.  This  makes  the  mean  daily  loss  of  water 
from  the  ground  not  cultivated  3.12  tons  per  acre 
greater  than  was  that  from  the  cultivated  soil.  This 
cultivation  saved  the  equivalent  of  7.9  inches  rainfall. 
The  soil  mulch  is  a  great  protection  against  temporary 
drought.  It  saves  the  soil  water  for  the  plant  to  use  in 
making  food;  whereas,  if  allowed  to  evaporate  from  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  it  would  be  lost.  The  mulch  should 
be  renewed  after  every  rain.  It  seems  strange,  but  it  is 
true,  that  a  summer  shower  will  destroy  the  mulch,  and 
cause  the  land  to  dry  out  so  much  faster  that  the  soil  will 
contain  less  moisture  after  a  few  days  than  if  it  had  not 
rained  at  all.  Such  a  shower  moistens  only  the  surface, 
destroying  the  capillary  spaces  between  the  soil  particles. 


Soils  and  Soil  Management  65 

97.  "Dry-land  Farming."  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  where  the  rainfall  is  so  light  that  the  trees  and, 
other  large  plants  requiring  large  amounts  of  water, 
will  not  grow,  the  soil  mulch  has  been  found  to  be  an 
excellent  conserver  of  soil  moisture.  A  crop  is  grown 
only  every  other  year.  The  fields  are  divided  into 
two  parts.  One  is  planted  in  grain,  and  the  other  will 
be  harrowed  after  each  rain,  or  oftener,  to  form  a  mulch. 
In  this  way,  the  water  is  stored  up  one  season  for  the 
next  season's  crop,  and  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  bushels 
of  grain  to  the  acre  are  harvested  every  other  year.  If 
a  crop  were  grown  every  year  on  all  the  land,  the  yield 
would  not  average  ten  bushels  per  acre. 

98.  How  Plants  Dry  the  Soil,  Do  plants  take  moisture 
from  the  soil  faster  than  ordinary  evaporation?  To  get 
an  answer  to  this  question,  fill  four  tomato  cans  with  a 
good  garden  loam.  In  one  plant  nothing;  in  another, 
forty  or  fifty  grains  of  oats;  in  another,  five  or  six  grains 
of  corn.  Put  an  elder  stem  or  hollow  cane  on  the  side 
of  each  so  that  the  plants  can  be  watered  from  the 
bottom.  If  we  put  water  on  the  surface,  a  crust  will 
form  that  will  cause  the  water  to  evaporate  much  faster. 
(Do  any  of  our  experiments  justify  this  statement?) 
Pour  just  enough  water  down  the  tube  to  make  the 
soil  reasonably  moist,  but  not  too  wet.  Set  in  a  warm 
place,  and,  when  the  seedlings  are  half  an  inch  high, 
weigh  the  cans  and  determine  the  loss  of  moisture  in 
the  usual  way.  Keep  the  cans  in  a  place  where  the 
plants  can  get  a  good  light,  but  not  where  the  sun 
would  heat  the  earth  too  much.  Sum  up  your  results 
at  the  end  of  the  first  week,  and  answer  the  questions 
given  above.  Likewise,  at  the  end  of  the  second  week. 
Can  you  explain  the  bad  effects  of  weeds  in  dry  times. 


66  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

99.  Absorptive  Power  of  Soils.  Soils  have  the  power 
of  absorbing  many  substances,  particularly  some  that 
are  valuable  plant  foods.  Prepare  two  lamp  chimneys  as 
described  in  H  95b,  and  fill  with  good  field  or  garden  soil. 
Into  one  pour  several  ounces  of  water  made  deep  blue 
with  laundry  blueing.  Note  the  color  of  the  water  when  it 
comes  through  the  cloth  below.  Into  the  second  chimney 
pour  foul  water  made  by  leaching  compost.  Coloring 
matters  or  soluble  salts  like  fertilizers,  absorbed  in  this 
way  (physical  absorption),  are  merely  held  more  firmly 
to  the  surface  of  the  soil  particles,  so  that  they  are  not 
readily  leached  out  by  percolating  waters.  Mineral 
plant  foods  held  in  the  soil  in  this  way  are  available 
for  absorption  by  the  roots  of  plants. 

Wood  ashes  contain  the  salts  left  from  the  plant 
when  the  air-derived  substances  have  been  driven  off 
by  burning.  It  represents  the  valuable  salts  absorbed 
from  the  soil.  Take  some  home-made  lye  and  taste  a 
drop  on  the  end  of  a  broom  straw.  Allow  to  filter  through 
the  soil  as  above  and  try  the  taste  of  the  drippings. 
Has  the  soil  absorbed  any  of  the  salts? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  ends  to  be  worked  for  in  soil  management? 
2.  What  is  meant  by  "soil?"  How  does  a  geologist  classify  soils? 
4.  What  is  the  farmer's  classification  of  the  layers  of  soils?  5.  Name 
the  four  chief  components  of  soils.  6.  What  are  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  a  sandy  soil?  7.  Of  a  clay  soil?  8.  Of  a  limy 
soil?  9.  Of  humus  in  soils?  10.  What  is  the  importance  of  the  size 
of  soil  particles?  11.  What  do  you  understand  by  soil  particles,  and 
soil  granules?  12.  What  does  the  farmer  mean  by  heavy  and  light 
soils?  .13.  What  kind  of  soil  warms  up  most  quickly?  14.  Why  does 
the  farmer  harrow  or  plow  up  the  crust  formed  by  rains?  15.  What 
is  meant  by  dry-land  farming?  What  is  its  advantage?   Explain. 


CHAPTER  XI 


WATER  IN  THE  SOIL 


100.  How  the  Water  Exists  in  the  Soil.  From  our  ex- 
periments, we  have  noticed  that  the  water  in  the  soil 
may  be  classed  as: 

(a)  Free,  or  gravitational  water,  the  water  which  flows 
under  the  influence  of  gravity  and  percolates  down- 
ward. When  the  water  collects  below,  we  call  it  bottom, 
or  ground,  water,  and  the  surface  layer  is  called  the 
water  table.    (See  Figs.  36  and  41.) 

(b)  Capillary  water  is  held  in  the  capillary  spaces  or 
pores  of  the  soil  and  is  not  influenced  by  gravity,  but 
moves  upward,  or  in  any  direction  where  the  soil  is 
becoming  drier.  It  is  held  in 
the  soil  by  the  same  force 
which  causes  the  whole  of  a 
rag  to  become  wet  when  one 
end  is  placed  in  water,  or 
which  causes  oil  to  rise  in  the 
wick  of  a  lamp.  The  amount 
of  capillary  water,  that  is, 
the  water  which  the  soil  may 
retain  against  the  influence 
of  gravity,  depends  on  the 
size  and  form  of  the  soil 
particles,  and  several  other 
conditions.  Where  there  is 
only  capillary  water  in  the 
soil,  there  is,  of  course,  some 

(67) 


Fig.  39.  Diagram  to  illustrate  how 
the  soil  particles  are  covered  by 
capillary  water.    After  Cameron. 


68 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


air  space,  because  the  capillary  films  will  not  be  thick 
enough  to  fill  the  spaces  between  the  grains,  espe- 
cially if  the  soil  is  coarse  grained.  This  is  the  condition 
most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  roots,  because  both 
water  and  air  are  present.    (Fig.  39.) 

(c)  Hygroscopic  water  is  the  film  of  water  held  on  the 
surface  of  solid  particles  independent  of  capillary  spaces. 
It  is  held  more  firmly  to  the  grains  than  capillary  water. 
Air-dry  soil  may  still  contain  from  one  to  ten  per  cent 
of  hygroscopic  water, — that  is,  water  which  may  be 
driven  off  only  by  heating  to  the  temperature  of  boiUng. 
Clay  soils,  in  particular,  often  contain  large  amounts  of 
hygroscopic  moisture. 

1 00a.  Rate  of  Percolation  of  Water  Through  Soils.  'J^rep^re  lamp 
chimneys  as  in  If  95b,  filling  them  two-thirds  full,  using  different 
kinds  of  soil.  Quickly  fill  all  the  chimneys  full  to  the  top  with  water, 
and  then  notice  the  time  required  for  water  to  begin  dripping  at 
the  lower  end.  It  will  be  well  to  place  wide- mouthed  bottles 
under  each  chimney  to  collect  the  drippings.  In  this  way  the  amount 
of  water  percolating  •through  the  different  soils  may  be  estimated. 
Which  would  be  preferable  in  field  conditions,  for  the  water  to  per- 
colate rapidly  or  slowly?    Discuss  this  question. 


Soil 

Time  required  for  first 

flow  from  bottom  of 

chimney 

Amount  of  water  passed 
through  chimney  at  end  of 

First 
day 

Second 
day 

Third 
day 

1 
2 
3 

101.  The  Amount  of  Capillary  Water  which  a  soil  may 
retain  varies  with  the  soil.  This  is  a  measure  of  the  power 
of  a  soil  to  store  up  water.  The  following  table,  taken 
from   Schubler*,   who   first  investigated  this   property 

♦See  Johnson,  How  Crops  Feed. 


Water  in  the  Soil 


of  soils,  shows  that  sandy  soils  retain  water  poorly  and 
that  humus  may  retain  nearly  double  its  weight  in  water. 


Pure  sand    

Lime  sand 

Clay  soil  (60%  clay). ... 

Loam   

Heavy  clay  (80%  clay) 

Pure  gray  clay 

Fine  carbonate  of  lime 

Garden  mold   

Humus     


Maximum  capillary 
water 


Per  cent 
25 
29 
40 
51 
61 
70 
85 
89 
181 


Water   lost  in  four 
hours 


Per  cent 
88.4 
75.9 
52.0 
47.5 
34.9 
31.9 
28.0 
24.3 
25.5 


The  second  column  shows  the  percentage  of  water 
that  evaporated  in  four  hours,  when  spread  over  a  given 
surface.  It  is  seen  that  soils  having  capacity  for  large 
amounts  of  capillary  water  part  with  it  very  slowly. 

102.  What  amount  of  water  is  most  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  plants?  This  has  been  experimentally 
studied  by  Hellriegel,  who  found  that  oats,  wheat, 
and  rye  growing  in  sand  able  to  hold  twenty-five  per 
cent  capillary  water  made  maximum  yield  with  fifteen 
to  twenty  per  cent  water.  He  observed  that  the  plants 
would  grow  with  no  less  vigor  when  the  soil  contained 
even  only  2.5  per  cent  water.  Below  this  the  plants 
would  wilt.  It  is  not  generally  true  that  the  most 
favorable  amount  of  moisture  for  the  growth  of  a  plant 
is  the  full  capillary  power  of  the  soil,  as  might  be  inferred 
from  the  above  results.  The  results  of  some  investi- 
gations of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
show  that  plants  might  suffer  for  lack  of  water  (drought 
limit)  when  the  soil  contained  15  per  cent  moisture, 
while    in    other   soils    the   plants   were   well   supplied 


70  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

when  the  soil  contained  only  4  per  cent  moisture.  In 
some  soils  20  per  cent  moisture  caused  injury,  while 
in  others  only  10  per  cent  moisture  acted  injuriously 
on  the  plants.  These  figures  indicate  approximate 
amounts  only.  While  the  range  from  the  ''dry"  to  ''wet" 
seems  narrow,  it  should  be  remembered  that  1  per  cent 
difference  in  water  in  the  first  foot  of  soil  would  amount  to 
a  rainfall  of  only  about  0.41  inch  for  clay  soil  and  0.57 
inch  for  sand,  allowing  80  pounds  per  cubic  foot  for  clay 
soil  and  110  pounds  for  sand.  Water  weighs  62.31  pounds 
per  cubic  foot.  One  inch  of  rainfall  completely  absorbed 
would  increase  the  percentage  of  moisture  about  six 
per  cent. 

103.  In  Irrigation  it  is  important  to  know  how  much 
water  to  apply.  Injury  may  be  done  by  applying  too 
much  water,  besides  causing  undue  expense  in  handling 
the  water. 

103a.  How  much  water  should  be  applied  to  a  sandy  loam 
soil  weighing  90  pounds  per  cubic  foot  to  raise  the  moisture  from 
3%  to  20%? 

104.  What  Becomes  of  the  Rain?  The  average  annual 
rainfall  at  Washington,  D.  C,  is  about  forty-four  inches; 
that  is,  in  a  year's  time,  the  rain,  snow,  and  sleet  would 
be  sufficient  to  cover  the  surface  forty-four  inches  deep 
in  water.  In  soine  parts  of  the  United  States  the  rain- 
fall is  fifty  inches,  and  in  other  sections  only  about 
fifteen.  What  becomes  of  this  large  amount  of  water? 
Some  of  it  runs  off  into  the  creeks  before  it  can  be 
absorbed  by  the  soil.  This  is  called  the  * 'surface  run-off," 
or  simply  surface  water.  This  water  is  lost  for  the  use 
of  the  plants.  When  the  surface  layers  are  hard  and 
compact,  the  water  can  not  be  absorbed  quickly,  and 
may  even  flow  off  while  the  roots  in  the  deeper  layers  are 


Water  in  the  Soil 


71 


suffering  from  a  lack  of  moisture.  If  the  fields  were 
kept  well  plowed,  more  of  this  water  would  soak  into 
the  soil  and  could  later  be  used  by  the  plants  when  dry- 
times  come.  If  more  water  soaks  into  the  layer  of  tilled 
soil  than  it  can  retain  by  its  capillary  properties,  it  is 
absorbed  by  the  sub-soil  and  may  finally  percolate 
down  to  the  layer  of  rock  or  clay  and  flow  off  to  form 
springs.  It  is  much  better  for  the  farmer  if  the  surface 
soil  and  the  sub-soil  are  well  supplied  with  water.  The 
rains  are  usually  not  abundant  in  the  season  when  they 
would  be  most  beneficial  in  increasing  the  yield  of  the 


Fig.  40.  Diagram  to  illustrate  the  effect  of  ideal  plowing.  The  compactness  of 
the  soil  is  indicated  by  the  density  of  the  shading.  Before  plowing,  there  is  a 
compact  surface  crust  (s),  below  which  the  soil  grows  less  compact  as  we  go 
deeper;  after  plowing,  this  compact  mass  is  broken  up  into  a  loose,  friable 
mass  of  soil-crumbs,  or  floccules,  with  a  consequent  increase  in  the  bulk  of 
tne  furrow-slice  (/s);  compacted  plow  sole  at  pi.  After  Hilgard. 

crops.    This  fact  suggests  all  the  more  strongly  the  im- 
portance of  studying  the  ways  that  may  be  used  to : 

1 .  Increase  the  ready  absorption  of  the  rainfall ; 

2.  Increase  the  water-storage  power  of  the  soil  occu- 
pied by  the  roots  (T|  100) ; 

3.  Increase  the  efficiency  of  mulches  in  conserving 
the  moisture  for  the  use  of  the  crops; 

4    Prevent  injury  to  the  fields  by  surface  washing. 

105.  The  Water-Storage  Power  of  the  soil  may  be 
increased  in  two  ways:  (a)  By  deep  breaking.  This  in- 
creases the  pore  space  in  the  soil  by  making  the  granules 
of  soil  smaller.  They,  therefore,  have  more  capillary 
space  (H  75).   Breaking  should  be  done  in  the  fall  so  that 


72 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


the  winter  rains  may  be  ab- 
sorbed, (b)  By  adding  sub- 
stances  to  the  soil  that  increase 
its  water-holding  power,  such 
as  compost  and  green  manures 
(11  101).  Increasing  the  water- 
storage  power  of  the  soil  tends 
to  lessen  washing.  The  water 
''runs"  after  every  little 
shower  in  the  hard  roadway, 
but  in  the  well-plowed  field 
the  rain  is  soon  absorbed  and 
passes  to  the  deeper  layers 
of  soil.  A  well-plowed  field 
may  absorb  a  full  three-inch 
rainfall,  and  thus  lessen  the 
damage  so  often  caused  by  sur- 
face washing.  No  one  may  say 
when  the  rains  will  come,  nor 
forecast  the  amount;  but  the 
farmer  has  it  in  his  power  to 
store  up  a  large  amount  of 
the  rain  to  provide  against 
temporary  drought.  This  he 
may  do  by  increasing  the  stor- 
age space  by  deep  fall  plow- 
ing, which  prepares  the 
ground  to  readily  absorb  the 
rain.  The  evaporation  may 
be  reduced  by  renewing  the 
soil-mulch  after  each  shower. 
This  is  particularly  important 
in  regions  of  low  rainfall. 


Water  in  the  Soil  '  73 

106.  Amount  of  Water  Required  to  Mature  a  Crop.  For 

every  pound  of  dry  matter  made  by  growing  corn,  cotton, 
oats,  etc.,  it  has  been  estimated  from  many  experiments 
that  from  two  hundred  to  four  hundred  pounds  of  water 
are  required.  This  includes  the  entire  plant  above 
ground,  regardless  of  that  which  is  harvested.  Accepting 
these  figures  as  nearly  correct,  let  us  estimate  how  much 
of  the  rainfall  is  consumed  in  maturing  a  good  crop  of 
corn,  cotton,  oats,  etc.  In  a  field  of  corn  making  fifty 
bushels  per  acre  the  figures  would  be  roughly  as  follows: 

50  bushels  com  (72  pounds  to  bushel). .  .3,600  pounds 
Stalks  and  leaves 3,600       " 

Plant  substance 7,200       " 

Approximate  quantity  of  water  required 

for  each  pound  of  plant  substance. .  .     300       " 

Water  used  by  crop 2,160,000       " 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62.3  pounds.  A  rain-fall 
of  one  inch  would  be  5.19  pounds  per  square  foot  of 
soil,  or  43,560X5.19=226,176.40  pounds  on  an  acre. 
Dividing  2,160,000  by  226,176.40,  we  find  that  less  than 
ten  inches  of  rainfall  would  be  used  by  the  plants  in 
making  fifty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre.  This  does  not 
include  the  water  that  would  evaporate  from  the  soil 
or  be  lost  by  the  surface  run-off. 

106a.  At  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  the  average  annual  rainfall  is  about 
38  inches.  What  per  cent  of  this  would  be  required  to  make  50 
bushels  of  corn  per  acre?  What  is  the  average  rainfall  in  your 
county?  See  Appendix  H. 

107.  Soil  Drainage.  There  are  many  places  in  low 
bottom  lands  on  which  water  accumulates  to  an  injuri- 
ous extent,  either  from  seepage  from  the  hills  or  from 
the  lack  of  an  outlet  for  the  surplus  water  in  very  wet 
spells.    Again,  there  are  low  ^'sweeps,"  '^swags,"  ''runs," 


74  Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 

"sloughs,"  and  the  like,  in  which  water  stagnates  to 
the  detriment  of  the  soil  and  the  crops.  Such  places 
may  often  be  greatly  improved  by  making  surface 
ditches  or  by  placing  drainage  tiles  (Fig.  41)  to  carry  off 
the  surplus  water.  In  making  open  ditches  it  is  better, 
if  circumstances  allow,  to  make  them  broad  with  sides 
sloping  up  about  one  foot  in  three  or  four.  This  will 
permit  of  the  cultivation  of  the  drainage-way,  and  leave 
no  banks  to  harbor  weeds  or  interfere  with  the  driving 
of  the  plows  in  any  direction.  Sometimes  underground 
drainage  ways  are  provided.  These  are  often  made  by 
digging  narrow  ditches  to  the  proper  depth  and  filling 
partly  with  coarse  stones,  logs,  etc.,  before  refilUng.  The 
surplus  water  finds  an  outlet  through  the  spaces  between 
the  stones.  Regular  drainage  tiles  are  now  most  often 
used  in  place  of  loose  stone.  They  may  be  secured  in 
any  size  to  suit  the  local  conditions.  Many  fields  have 
been  greatly  improved  by  placing  rows  of  tile  drains 
every  thirty  feet  or  so.  The  prompt  drainage  of  some 
soils  is  just  as  important  as  the  conservation  of  water 
in  others.  An  excess  of  water  delays  the  warming  of  the 
soil  in  spring,  and  prevents  the  growth  of  the  roots. 

On  hillsides,  water  flows  off  so  quickly  that  it  forms 
washes,  or  gullies,  in  the  land.  The  field  is  injured,  not 
only  by  a  direct  washing  off  of  the  productive  surface 
soil,  but  also  by  a  leaching  out  of  the  valuable  mineral 
plant  foods  that  accumulate  in  the  surface  soils  that  are 
not  washed.  (H  130.)  Every  one  has  noticed  the  lessened 
productiveness  of  sloping  hillsides  that  have  been  long  in 
cultivation.  Many  plans  have  been  proposed  to  lessen 
these  losses  to  the  productive  qualities  of  such  lands,  or 
to  restore  such  qualities  to  fields  that  have  been  injured 
by  neglect.    Some  lands  wash  badly,  even  though  the 


Water  in  the  Soil  75 

slope  is  very  gradual.  Uncultivated  lands  are  protected 
from  devastating  washings  by  their  coverings  of  grass, 
weeds,  and  other  forms  of  vegetation.  The  latter  retard 
the  flow  of  the  surface  water,  and  therefore  allow  more 
of  it  to  soak  into  the  soil. 

In  preventing  injury  by  too  rapid  surface  drainage, 
or  in  recovering  land  that  has  been  injured  by  washings, 
several  working  principles  have  been  proposed,  which 
may  be  applied  with  success,  either  singly  or  in  com- 
binations, to  suit  the  local  circumstances: 

(a)  By  Terracing.  This  consists  in  breaking  the  slope 
up  into  a  number  of  terraces,  or  level  belts,  with  sharply 
sloping  sides,  such  as  may  be  observed  on  a  very  large 
scale  along  the  shores  of  lakes  or  water  courses.  The  ter- 
races are  made  nearly  level,  so  that  the  rain  is  kept  on 
the  land  longer,  and  therefore  facilitates  absorption  and 
allows  the  excess  to  flow  off  slowly.  Terraces  are  pref- 
erable to  the  old-time  hillside  ditches.  The  latter  quite 
often  magnify  the  trouble  they  were  intended  to  pre- 
vent. Objections  are  made  to  terracing  because  of  the 
great  cost  of  construction  and  the  increased  cost  of  cul- 
tivation. Also,  because  a  part  of  the  land  is  left  uncul- 
tivated, and  therefore  likely  to  grow  up  in  weeds.  The 
practice  of  running  the  rows  on  a  level  around  a  hillside 
may  be  considered  a  form  of  terracing. 

(b)  By  Deep  Breaking,  or  keeping  the  absorptive 
power  of  the  soil  to  a  point  where  moderate  rains  will 
be  readily  absorbed.    (K  105.) 

(c)  By  Growing  Cover-crops  (^  144)  which  not  only 
protect  the  land  while  they  are  on  the  land,  but  also 
add  vegetable  matter  which  tends  to  bind  the  soil  to- 
gether. Soils  in  southern  climates  usually  contain  less 
vegetable  matter,  and  therefore  suffer  more  from  wash- 


76 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


^£^ 

'.:  9 

B 

/^ 

m 

i 

in 

r 

a^V^^Vt*--'  *■*.       ; 

1 

1 

■ 

L 

Fig.  41b.  Growth  of  rye  in  early  spring.  A,  unfertilized;  B,  fertilized  with 
nitrogenous  fertilizer.  The  leaching  rains  had  robbed  the  soil  of  its  nat- 
ural store  of  nitrogen.   Arkansas  Experiment  Station. 

ing  than  similar  soils  in  northern  climates.  This  fact 
should  suggest  to  farmers  in  southern  climates  their 
need  of  greater  attention  to  the  use  of  cover  crops. 
(Fig.  41b.) 


QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  three  forms  does  water  exist  in  the  soil?  2.  Explain 
capillary  water.  Hygroscopic  water.  3.  Between  what  per  cents 
of  water  content  do  plants  grow  most  vigorously?  4.  Can  an  irri- 
gated field  have  too  much  water?  5.  What  becomes  of  the  rains? 
6.  What  can  the  farmer  do  to  make  use  of  a  greater  amount  of 
the  average  rainfall?  7.  About  how  much  water  is  used  for  every 
pound  of  dry  matter  made  by  growing  cotton,  or  corn?  8.  Why  is 
soil  drainage  important?  9.  How  should  open  drains  be  made?  10. 
What  is  a  tile  drain?  11.  Why  are  foot-hill  fields  more  productive 
than  hill  fields?  12.  Mention  several  ways  of  reducing  the  leaching 
and  washing  of  hillside  fields.  13.  Explain  the  theory  of  each 
method. 


CHAPTER  XII 

RELATION  OF  THE  PLANT  TO  THE  CHEMICAL 
COMPOSITION  OF  THE  SOIL 

"The  soil  is  not  only  a  sponge,  from  which  the  plant 
may  obtain  water,  but  it  is  also  a  storehouse  of  plant 
food  and  a  laboratory  in  which  the  plant  food  is  pre- 
pared and  dissolved  for  the  plant." — Osterhout,  Ex- 
periments with  Plants. 

108.  In  the  preceding  chapter,  the  relation  of  the 
plant  to  the  water  contained  in  the  soil,  and  the  means 
by  which  the  water  supply  may  be  increased,  have  been 
discussed.  These  tillage  operations  not  only  cause  the 
water  to  be  retained  for  the  use  of  the  plants,  but  to  dis- 
solve the  mineral  food  elements  in  the  soil.  While  the 
amount,  the  kind,  and  the  condition  of  these  soil  foods 
affect  very  greatly  the  fertility  or  agricultural  value  of 
a  soil,  we  should  remember  that,  without  resort  to 
means  for  improving  the  mechanical  condition,  many 
soils,  naturally  rich  in  plant  food,  would  yield  poor 
crops.  We  should  therefore  not  only  study  closely  the 
relation  of  the  chemical  composition  but  of  the  physical 
properties  of  the  soil  to  the  fruitfulness  of  the  crops. 

109.  The  Essential  Elements.  By  growing  plants  with 
their  roots  in  a  medmm  of  known  composition,  plant 
physiologists  have  determined  which  elements  of  the 
soil  are  really  necessary  for  the  healthy,  normal  growth 
of  the  plant.  By  the  same  means  they  have  been  able 
to  determine  the  effect  of  other  substances.  For  these 
tests,  the  plants  are  usually  grown  in  vessels  thoroughly 

(77) 


78 


Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 


cleaned  and  partly  filled  with  distilled  water  (water  cul- 
tures), or  with  pure  sand  (sand  cultures),  to  which  are 
added  solutions  containing  the  different  substances 
supposed  to  be  necessary  for  plants.  These  solutions  are 
made  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  solutions  as  they 
occur  naturally  in  the  soil.  Plants  have  been  grown  to 
maturity  in  these  artificial  solutions  side  by  side  with 
ones  just  Hke  them  planted  in  the  ground, 
and  with  equally  satisfactory  results.  Where 
it  was  desired  to  determine  if,  say,  potas- 
sium was  really  necessary,  a  solution  was 
prepared  having  all  the  ingredients  found 
in  the  soil  waters  except  potassium,  and  in 
this  the  plants  would  be  grown.  Fig.  42 
shows  the  results  of  growing  buckwheat  in 
a  complete  or  normal  nutrient  solution  and 
also  when  certain  important  elements  are 
withheld.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
some  potash,  calcium,  etc.,  was  in  the  seed 
so  that  not  all  the  mineral  nutrients 
are  kept  from  the  plantlet.  Sodium, 
while  quite  simi- 
lar to  potassium, 
can  not  replace 
potassium  as  a 
nutrient. 

110.  Effect  of 
Fertilizers.  An- 
other way  of 
testing  the  effect 

Fig.  42.    Buckwheat  Ktown   in  artificial  solutions  of  ^^      ^     SUbstaUCe 

mineral  nutrients     A,  complete  solution;  iJ,  potas-  •„     x^     n-rnwr     fVio 

sium  withheld;  C,  nitrogen  withheld;  D,  calcium  ^^     lO     glOW     tne 

(lime)  withheld;  ^.without    potassium,    but   so-  Tklon+a     in     ar\mck 

dium  added.  Drawn  from  photograph  by  Nobbe.  pianiS     m     SOme 


Relation  of  the  Plant  to  the  Soil  79 

available  soil  and  add  the  substances  to  the  soil.  This  is 
called  fertihzing  the  soil.  Fig.  43  illustrates  the  effect 
of  applying  different  fertilizing  substances  to  a  sandy 
soil  taken  from  a  field  in  Eastern  Texas.  Fig.  44  shows 
the  effect  of  adding  nitrogen,  potassium  and  phosphorus 
to  pot-cultures  of  alfalfa  made  at  the  Oklahoma  Agri- 
cultural and  Mechanical  College. 


Fig.  43.    Effect  of  fertilizers  on  fine  sandy  loam.    An  application  of  phos- 
phoric acid  is  denoted  by  P;  potash  by  K;  nitrogen  by  N. 

111.  The  Quantity  of  Fertilizing  Substances  added  to 
the  soil  is  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  increased  weight  of 
the  crop  which  it  produces.  Minerals  are  absorbed  by 
the  plants  in  exceedingly  small  amounts,  for  they  form 
only  about  one  part  in  two  hundred  of  the  fresh,  living 
plant,  and  rarely  more  than  five  per  cent  of  the  dry 
substance.  They  are  necessary  as  food  substance;  they 
become  a  part  of  the  living  plant  substance.  Exceedingly 
small  amounts  suffice  in  the  case  of  iron,  sulphur,  chlo- 


80 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


rine,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  The  substances  named 
occur  in  nearly  all  soils  in  quantities  sufficient  to  supply 
the  plants  abundantly.  Other  substances,  as  potassium, 
phosphorus  and  nitrogen,  are  more  important,  and  must 
be  supplied  when  necessary.  (See  table  of  fertilizing 
substances  in  feed-stuffs  in  Appendix.) 

112.  The  Form  in  Which  Plants  Take  Up  Their  Mineral 
Food.  These  ''elements"  occur  in  the  soil  as  compounds 
with  other  substances.    The  soil  is  composed  mostly  of 


Fig.  44.  Pot  cultures  of  alfalfa,  showing  effect  of  adding  different  fertilizers. 
D9,  nothing;  DIO,  nitrogen;  Dll,  potassium,  and  D12,  phosphorus.  Pho- 
tograph from  Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. 

insoluble  compounds,  which  the  plants  cannot  use.  The 
particles  are  very  slowly  changed  into  soluble  compounds, 
and  in  this  form  are  absorbed  by  the  plants.  The  amount 
or  per  cent  of  soluble  matter  in  the  soil  water  at  any 
one  time  is  exceedingly  small,  as  shown  by  the  analysis 
of  natural  waters.  In  fact,  if  the  amount  should  exceed 
ten  parts  in  a  thousand  the  effect  would  be  unfavorable 
on  the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  total  amount  of,  say, 
potash  in  the  soil  may  be  several  per  cent  of  the  total 
soil  weight,  yet  the  amount  in  solution  at  any  time  may 
rarely  exceed  fifty  parts  per  million  of  water.   It  is  well 


Relation  of  the  Plant  to  the  Soil 


81 


that  this  is  so,  for,  otherwise,  the  valuable  soil  constitu- 
ents would  be  washed  off  to  the  sea  by  the  percolating 
water.  It  is  the  great  solubihty  of  some  substances,  like 
nitrates,  that  explains  their  scarcity  in  the  soil. 

Mineral  Matter  Dissolved  in  100,000  Parts  of 
Drainage  Water. 


Field  No.  1 

Field  No.  2 

Field  No.  3 

Potash 

trace 
trace 
10.27 
1.43 
6.93 
10.00 
16.25 

44.88 

trace 
0.17 
21.17 
3.10 
10.24 
10.57 
12.04 

57.29 

0.07 

Phosphoric  acid 

Nitrogen  compounds 

Soda 

Lime 

Soluble  organic  matter .... 
Other  substances 

Total '. 

trace 
2.79 
1:24 
2.23 
8.00 
6.89 

21.22 

113.  Chemical  Change  in  the  Soil.  The  soil  is  the  seat 
of  constant  changes,  and  these  changes  have  great  in- 
fluence on  the  productiveness  of  the  soil.  When  the 
soil  is  plowed,  the  particles  are  exposed  more  to  the 
action  of  the  air,  water,  frost,  etc.  When  humus  is  put 
into  the  soil,  acids  are  formed  as  the  humus  decomposes, 
and  these  tend  to  dissolve  the  substances  in  the  soil. 

114.  Soil-Bacteria.  Humus  also  encourages  the  growth 
of  soil  bacteria,  because  they  live  on  plant  and  animal 
remains.  These  bacteria  decompose  the  humus,  and, 
in  doing  so,  set  free  carbonic  acid,  which  aids  in  dis- 
solving the  particles  of  soil.  Thus  it  is  that  the  bacteria 
of  decay  act  beneficially  on  the  soil.  Other  species  of 
bacteria  cause  the  formation  of  nitrates  from  ammonia 
or  other  nitrogen  compounds  or  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 
air.  No  soil  will  long  remain  fertile  unless  the  supply  of 
organic  matter  is  kept  up. 


82 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


115.  Effect  of  Wheat  and  Barley  Grown  Continuously 
on  the  Same  Land.  Some  results  from  the  famous  ex- 
periments of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  at  the  Rothamsted 
estate*  are  very  instructive  in  showing  the  effect  of 
growing  crops  continuously  on  the  same  soil.  Wheat 
and  barley,  as  well  as  other  crops,  have  been  grown  on 
the  same  land  through  a  series  of  years  without  manur- 
ing. Adjoining  these  non-fertiUzed  crops  were  others 
treated  annually  with  barnyard  manure.  Tests  were 
also  made  of  the  effect  of  various  other  fertilizers. 
The  results  are  given  in  averages  for  periods  of  eight 
years.  They  show  that  the  annual  application  of  manure 
increased  the  average  annual  yield  twenty  bushels  per 
acre  for  wheat  and  thirty-two  and  one-eighth  bushels  for 
barley. 

Effect  of  Continuous  Cropping  With  and 
Without  Manuring. 


Wheat.  Bus.  per  acre 

Barley.  Bus.  per  acre 

Un- 
manured 

Manured 

Un- 
manured 

Manured 

8  years,  1844-51 

17f 
16i 

1 

121 
13^ 

28 

34f 
35| 
35f 

28f 
39i 
33| 

33^ 

24i 

18 

14i 

14f 

111 

101 

16i 

8  years,  1852-59. 

44i 
521 
49^ 
52i 
44f 
49^ 

48f 

8  years,  1860-67 

8  years,  1868-75 

8  years,  1876-83 

8  years,  1884-91 

8  years,  1892-93. 

Average  50  years 

♦Rothamsted  Estate,  Hartfordshire,  England,  the  home  of  noteworthy  in- 
vestigations in  agriculture  under  the  Lawes  Agricultural  Trust,  was  founded  in 
1843  by  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes.  These  investigations,  directed  by  Sir  Joseph  Gilbert 
and  the  distinguished  founder  for  more  than  half  a  century,  have  had  great  in- 
fluence in  shaping  the  agricultural  practices  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

IMPROVING  THE  CHEMICAL  NATURE 
OF  THE  SOIL 

116.  What  Plants  Remove  from  the  SoiL  The  amount 
of  mineral  food  substances  removed  from  the  soil  by  a 
bountiful  harvest  is  considerable.  The  object  of  fertil- 
izing is  not  only  to  return  to  the  soil  the  elements  that 
help  the  growth  of  the  crops,  but  also  to  improve  the 
tilth.  In  applying  fertilizers,  we  should  remember  that 
our  effort  is  to  bring  about  a  twofold  result:  (a)  to  supply 
mineral  food,  and  (6)  to  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil. 
While,  ordinarily,  we  add  substances  supplying  soluble 
salts  containing  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  equally  beneficial  results  are 
sometimes  secured  by  applying  dressings  of  substances 
that  do  not  contain  any  considerable  quantities  of  these 
elements,  as  lime,  plaster  of  Paris,  or  gypsum.  The 
benefits  derived  from  these  substances  are  due  to  the 
effect  they  have  on  the  physical  properties  of  the  soil. 
The  Hme  may  also  cause  the  decomposition  of  insoluble 
particles  containing  potassium  or  phosphorus.   (Fig.  45.) 

116a.  Corn  contains  about  1.58  per  cent  of  nitrogen;  0.37  per 
cent  of  potassium;  and  0.57  per  cent  of  phosphorus.  How  much  of 
each  does  a  crop  of  50  bushels  per  acre  remove  from  the  soil? 

117.  Not  All  Soils  Need  the  Same  Fertilizer.  Experi- 
ments have  shown  that  the  chemical  analysis  of  a  soil 
does  not  give  a  farmer  a  satisfactory  guide  as  to  what 
fertilizer  to  apply  to  his  land.  The  analysis  might  show 
a  high  per  cent  of  potash,  and  yet  it  might  be  in  such 

(83) 


84 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


BEEF 


A.  Showing  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  removed 
from  the  farm  when  1,000  pounds  each  of  beef,  milk,  butter,  and  strawbt  rries 
are  sold. 


CORN 


WHEAT 


OATS 


B.  Showing  the  amounts  of  the  three  most  important  plant  foods  removed 
from   the  soil  by  growing    1,000   pounds   eacJi  of  rorn,  wheat,  and  oats. 


ALFALFA 


C.  Showing  the  amounts  of  the  three  principa 
plant-foods  removed  from  and  returned  to 
the  soil  by  1,000  pounds  each  of  cottoji 
lint,  cotton  seed,  and  alfalfa. 

COTTON   LINT 


COTTON  SEED 

■"■M    "^     ■'  '^  "^ 

1 

, 

^ 

k 

91 

i 

- 

'■^.t^ 

J 

\ii3j 

u 

/■;?■■/ 

JO. 

o 

^ 

^ 

- 

i:# 

^/■r 

i 

^\ 


isifi 


zizi 

— -O—  .V 

—  &—  •  • 


Fig.  45.     Tables  showing  the  amount  of  mineral  food  substances  removed  and 
returned  to  the  soil  by  various  crops. 

insoluble  combinations  that  the  plants  could  not  absorb 
it.  This  would  not  be  the  general  rule,  however.  Usu- 
ally, where  the  soil  analysis  shows  a  high  per  cent  of 
an  essential  element,  fertilizing  with  substances  con- 
taining this  element  rarely  gives  returns  above  the  cost 
of  the  fertilizer.    The  only  safe  rule  by  which  to  learn 


Improving  the  Chemical  Nature  of  the  Soil        85 

the  needs  of  a  particular  field  is  to  make  trials,  using 
a  variety  of  fertilizers,  and  thus  observe  what  fertilizer 
gives  most  satisfactory  results.  These  tests  must  be 
made  for  each  soil  formation.    (See  ^  133.) 

118.  Kinds  of  Fertilizers.  Fertilizers  are  variously 
classed,  according  to  the  valuable  element  they  supply, 
as  ''nitrogenous",  ''phosphate"  or  "potash"  fertilizers. 
Substances  containing  all  three  constituents  are  termed 
"complete"  fertilizers;  or  according  to  source,  as  home 
fertilizers,  or  commercial  fertilizers.  In  most  instances 
the  substances  applied  to  the  land  contain  more  than 
one  valuable  element,  as,  for  instance,  composts,  which, 
being  made  out  of  plant  remains,  contain  all  the  mineral 
elements  found  in  plants. 

119.  Potassium  Fertilizers.  The  most  important 
source  of  potash  fertilizers  is  the  famous  Stassfurt  mines 
of  Germany.  The  most  common  forms  known  to  the 
markets  are  the  sulphate,  muriate  and  kainit — the  latter 
a  mixture  of  several  salts.  All  are  readily  soluble  and 
therefore  are  classed  as  "quick  fertilizers."  Wood-ashes 
form  an  important  source  of  potash,  though  their 
value  depends  much  on  the  source,  and  the  way  in 
which  they  have  been  cared  for.  If  leached  out  by  the 
rains,  their  value  as  a  fertilizer  is  much  lessened.  Lime 
and  gypsum  often  have  the  effect  of  potash  fertilizers, 
causing  the  decomposition  of  insoluble  potash  com- 
pounds in  the  soil,  and  thus  indirectly  acting  as  potash 
fertiUzers.  The  "home-made  lye"  obtained  from  ashes 
is  largely  potash. 

120.  Phosphorus  Fertilizers.  Phosphorus  is  an  im- 
portant fertilizer.  Three-fourths  of  the  phosphorus 
absorbed  from  the  soil  is  deposited  in  the  grain  of  the 
crop,  and  is,  therefore,  ordinarily  sold  from  the  farm, 


86  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

while  only  one-fourth  remains  in  the  straw.  Phos- 
phorus compounds  are  widely  distributed,  though, 
usually,  in  insoluble  compounds.  Phosphorus  is  found 
in  the  soils  combined  with  lime,  magnesia,  iron  and 
alumina.  For  fertilizing  purposes  phosphates  are  ob- 
tained from  bones,  and  rocks  formed  by  the  deposit  of 
similar  remains.  In  bones  it  exists  as  the  insoluble 
lime  phosphate.  To  overcome  this,  the  rock  or  bone 
phosphates  are  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  which  con- 
verts the  insoluble  into  soluble  compounds.  When  ap- 
plied to  the  soil  it  soon  returns  to  the  insoluble  salt, 
dicalcium  phosphate.  This  latter  is  soluble  in  the  pres- 
ence of  carbonic  acid  formed  by  the  roots  and  decaying 
humus,  and  is  hence  readily  available.  (See  K  76.) 
Phosphorus  fertilizers  do  not  give  beneficial  results  when 
applied  to  soils  containing  an  excess  of  lime,  like  most 
of  the  "black  waxy'*  soils. 

Bone-black,  formed  by  heating  raw  bones  in  the 
presence  of  air,  is  used  in  large  quantities  by  sugar 
refineries.  When  it  has  served  its  purpose,  it  becomes  a 
waste  product  and  is  sold  for  fertilizing.  It  has  little 
value  until  treated  with  sulphuric  acid.  Bone-meal  is 
the  fresh  bone  ground  and  steamed  and  contains  some 
nitrogenous     matters    in   addition  tO  the  phosphorus. 

The  commercial  supplies  of  phosphates  are  bones 
and  phosphate  rocks.  The  latter  are  mined  in  large 
quantities  in  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Tennessee,  Vir- 
ginia and  Pennsylvania. 

121.  Nitrogenous  Fertilizers.  Nitrogen  is  absorbed 
by  plants  as  nitrates.  The  most  readily  available  form 
is  the  ''ChiU  saltpeter,"  found  in  large  quantities  in 
tainless  regions  on  the  western  coast  of  South  America. 
As  it  occurs  naturally  in  the  "saltpeter  beds"  it  contains 


Yield  from  one-tenth  acre  of  cotton,  with  fertiUzer  containing  phosphoric 
acid,  nitrogen  and  potash. 

Fig.  46.     Some  soils  are  made  more  productive  by  fertilizers. 


88  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

a  large  amount  of  common  salt,  but  when  prepared  for 
commerce  it  is  a  crude  form  of  nitrate  of  soda.  This  is 
the  form  most  used  on  quick-growing  truck  crops.  It  is 
readily  soluble  and,  therefore,  easily  washed  out  of  the 
soil.    (See  t  127,  Nitrification.) 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  obtained  as  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas  from  coal,  and 
from  the  distillation  of  bone  in  the  manufacture  of  bone- 
black.  It  is  a  very  concentrated  fertiUzer,  containing 
about  twenty  per  cent  nitrogen.  Ammonia  salts  are 
readily  converted  into  the  nitrates  by  the  nitrifying 
bacteria  and  are  usually  absorbed  by  plants  in  this 
form. 

122.  Guano,  obtained  from  the  habitation  of  flesh- 
eating  birds  roosting  in  caves  and  sea  islands,  has  long 
been  used  as  a  fertilizer.  Dried  fish,  blood,  hair,  leather, 
and  various  other  substances  of  animal  origin,  are  fre- 
quently used  for  fertilizing  purposes.  The  nitrogen  of 
both  animal  and  vegetable  origin  must  first  be  decom- 
posed and  converted  into  nitrates  before  it  can  be  used 
by  plants.  This  takes  time,  and  hence  such  substances 
are  slow-acting  fertilizers.  The  meal,  or  pomace, 
obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  extraction  of  vege- 
table oils,  all  contain  large  quantities  of  nitrogen, 
such  as  cottonseed  meal,  castor  pomace,  germ  meal 
obtained  from  corn,  etc.  These  substances  are  very 
valuable  as  feeds  for  stock.  This  does  not  preclude 
their  use  for  fertilizing,  for,  in  fact,  they  are  almost 
as  valuable  for  fertilizing  purposes,  after  passing 
through  the  cattle,  as  before. 

123.  Composted  manures  are  the  most  economical  and, 
in  general,  the  most  desirable  fertilizers.  Besides  sup- 
plying large  amounts  of  nitrogen,  they  contain  consid- 


Improving  the  Chemical  Nature  of  the  Soil        89 

erable  quantities  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  The 
vegetable  matter  acts  very  beneficially,  improving  the 
texture  and  water-retaining  property  of  the  soil.  An 
instance  of  the  power  of  compost  to  maintain  the  land 
at  a  high  state  of  productiveness  has  already  been 
given  (T[  115).  Compost  should  be  applied  in  the  fall  or 
early,  winter  and  plowed  or  harrowed  under.  Covered 
barns  prevent  the  loss  in  value  of  compost  by  scattering 
and  leaching.  Sometimes  the  compost  is  remove^ 
directly  to  the  field.  In  many  cases,  where  it  is  stored  in 
bins,  sufficient  soil  should  be  added  from  time  to  time 
to  absorb  the  ammonia  that  is  formed.  When  packed 
down  closely  to  exclude  the  air,  the  loss  from  fermenta- 
tion will  be  greatly  reduced. 

124.  Fixation  of  Free  Nitrogen  by  the  tubercle-forming 
bacteria,  found  on  the  roots  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
pea  family,  is  the  most  important  source  of  nitrogen 
known.  By  growing  these  legumes  we  add  to  the  supply 
of  combined  nitrogen,  and  thus  make  the  world  richer. 
We  do  not  recover  all  the  nitrogen  added  to  the  soil  in 
fertihzing.  A  part  of  it  is  lost  by  leaching,  and  a  part  by 
the  escape  of  free  nitrogen.  All  combined  nitrogen  may 
be  used  over  and  over  again  by  plants  and  animals,  but 
eventually  it  escapes  back  to  the  air  as  free  nitrogen 
and,  in  this  form,  is  available  only  to  the  bacteria 
which  cause  the  formation  of  tubercles  on  the  roots  of 
legumes,  and  to  a  low  class  of  microscopic  plants.  (See 
H  127,  Nitrification.)  Without  these  plants  the  world's 
supply  of  combined  nitrogen  would  become  exhausted. 
In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  only  the  ''tubercle 
bacteria,"  and  one  or  two  other  classes  of  bacteria, 
whose  life-habits  are  little  understood,  are  known  to 
have  the  power  of  fixing  free  nitrogen. 


90 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


125.  Tubercles  on  Legumes.  Plants  belonging  to  the 
pea  or  legume  family  have  small  tubercles  on  their  roots. 
(Fig.  47,  A  and  B.)  On  opening  the  small  tubercles  found 


Fig.  47.     A,  root  system  of  pea  with  tubercles.   B,  root  system  of  alfalfa  with 
tubercles.    After  Belzung 

on  the  roots  of  beans,  peas,  alfalfa,  blue  bonnets,  etc., 

we  notice  in  the  center  a  rose-colored  area.    If  a  bit 

of  this  is  scraped  into  a  drop  of  water,  it  becomes  milky 

because    of    the    hundreds    of    bacteria. 

They  are  so  small  that  the  most  powerful 

microscopes  are  needed  to  make  out  their 

form.    (Fig.  48.)    It  is  these  little  plants 

that    have   the   power  to   take   the    free 

nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  and   convert 

it  into  such  form  that  the  nodule-bearing 

plants,  such  as  the  cow-pea,  may  use  it. 

Without  these  bacteria  the  legumes  do  not 

fix  free  nitrogen.    It  is  this  nitrogen-fixing 

power  that  makes  these  plants  so  valu-      'tubercle  of^°^ 

1  I       .  gume   showing 

able    to    us.  the  bacteria. 


Improving  the  Chemical  Nature  of  the  Soil        91 

126.  How  Legumes  Enrich  the  Soil.  By  growing 
legumes  (cow-peas,  alfalfa,  peanuts,  etc.)  the  farmer  is 
able  to  harvest  a  crop  valuable  as  food  for  man,  or  feed 
for  stock.  These  crops  are  especially  valuable  because 
of  the  large  amount  of  nitrogenous  or  muscle-building 
substances  which  they  contain.  At  the  same  time, 
strange  as  it  may  seem,  they  leave  a  larger  quantity 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  than  was  there  before  the  crop 
was  sown.  The  latter  becomes  available  to  other  plants 
by  the  decay  of  the  roots.  This  promotes  the  yield 
of  the  succeeding  crop,  as  the  following  experiment 
shows:  The  plan  of  the  experiment  included  two 
plots,  ''A"  and  *'B."  On  ''A"  clover  was  grown  the 
first  year  and  barley  the  second.  On  "B"  barley  was 
grown  both  years.  The  increase  in  yield  of  barley  on 
plot  "A"  over  '*B"  is  the  measure  of  the  manurial  value 
of  the  roots  of  the  clover  left  in  the  soil  by  the  first  year's 
crop. 

PIq^  Yield  in  Yield  in 

first  year  second  year 

A.  Clover Clover  Barley  69.4  bus. 

B.  Barley 37.3  bus.  Barley  39.1  bus. 

Increase  in  yield  due  to  clover  roots . .  30.3  bus.  per  acre. 

The  fixation  of  free  nitrogen  by  the  bacteria  in  the 
root  nodules  of  the  pea  family  has  been  thoroughly 
studied  and  is  well  established. 

127.  Nitrification  is  the  formation  of  nitrates  or  salts 
containing  nitrogen.  Whenever  vegetable  or  animal 
remains,  Hke  guano,  cottonseed  meal,  composts  and 
animal  bodies,  decay  in  the  soil,  the  complex  nitrogen 
compounds  are  broken  up,  and  nitrates  are  formed. 
Nitrogen,  which  is  so  essential  to  plant  life,  is  absorbed 
from  the  soil  as  nitrates.    The  nitrogen  in  the  cottonseed 


92  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

meal,  for  instance,  must  be  converted  into  a  soluble 
salt  before  it  can  be  absorbed.  This  change  is  complex 
and  is  brought  about  by  certain  kinds  of  bacteria  in 
the  soil. 

128.  How  to  Promote  Nitrification.  Since  the  amount 
of  nitrate  nitrogen  in  the  soil  affects  the  yield  of  crops, 
particularly  grain  and  forage  crops,  the  question  is  often 
asked,  ''Can  the  farmer  promote  the  growth  of  the  nitri- 
fying bacteria  in  his  soils?"  The  answer  is  "yes."  These 
bacteria  are  most  active  when  the  soil  is  loose,  so  that 
air  can  enter.  These  bacteria  use  large  amounts  of  oxy- 
gen in  making  the  nitrates,  hence  deep  cultivation  is 
the  first  essential  to  promote  their  activity.  They  do  not 
grow  in  strongly  acid  soils.  (See  further  in  any  ency- 
clopedia, under  ''Saltpeter.")  Nitrification  is  most  active 
during  the  summer  when  the  temperature  is  high.  It 
ceases  when  the  temperature  of  the  soil  falls  below 
50°  Fahr. 

129.  De-nitrification  is  the  destruction  of  nitrates. 
This  is  due  to  another  class  of  bacteria,  but,  fortunately, 
the  soil  conditions  that  favor  nitrification  tend  to  retard 
de-nitrification.  De-nitrification  takes  place  in  a  serious 
degree,  sometimes,  when  manure  is  not  properly  cared 
for;  as  when  it  becomes  too  dry,  or  when  so  wet  that  air 
is  excluded.   The  same  is  true  for  the  soils  of  the  fields. 

130.  How  the  Soil  Loses  Nitrogen.  The  complex 
nitrogen  compounds  are  usually  converted  into  nitrates 
and  absorbed  by  growing  plants.  If  not  absorbed,  they 
may  be  destroyed  by  the  de-nitrifying  bacteria,  or  leached 
from  the  soil  by  percolating  waters.  They  are  quite 
soluble  and,  therefore,  easily  washed  from  the  soil,  par- 
ticularly so  from  fallow  soils  through  the  winter  months. 
The  practice  of  leaving  our  cotton  and  corn  fields  fallow 


Improving  the  Chemical  Nature  of  the  Soil        93 

and  unplowed  through  the  winter  has  much  to  do  with 
the  "wearing  oijt"  of  the  soils.  A  better  plan  would  be 
to  have  the  ground  covered  by  some  winter  annual 
plant,  such  as  oats,  which  could  be  grazed. 

131.  Green  Manuring.  Sometimes  crops  are  grown 
with  no  intention  of  saving  the  above-ground  portion 
for  hay,  but  it  is  plowed  under  to  increase  the  content 
of  humus  in  the  soil.  While,  in  general,  it  would  be 
much  better  to  save  the  hay  and,  after  feeding  to  stock, 
return  the  compost  to  the  soil,  there  may  be  situations 
where  it  is  desirable  to  turn  the  entire  crop  directly 
into  the  soil.  When  a  crop  is  plowed  under  to  enrich  the 
soil,  sufficient  time  should  be  allowed  for  complete  decay 
before  sowing  another  crop.  The  decaying  plant  remains 
often  causes  the  soil  to  become  quite  acid  for  months 
afterward.    Legumes  are  best  for  green  manuring. 

132.  Relation  of  Texture  to  Fertilizing.  The  profit  or 
loss  resulting  from  the  application  of  fertilizers  depends 
much  on  the  texture  of  the  soil.  Irrigation  water  and 
fertiUzers  are  but  poor  and  expensive  substitutes  for 
timely  efforts  to  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil.  The 
best  results  from  irrigation,  or  the  application  of  ferti- 
lizers, may  .be  expected  only  when  the  soil  is  in  the  most 
favorable  tilth.    'Tillage  is  manure." 

133.  Experiments  on  Soil  Testing.  In  H  117,  mention 
was  made  of  the  desirability  of  testing  the  value  of 
various  fertihzing  substances  for  any  particular  soil 
formation.  Select  a  level  piece  of  soil  whose  productive- 
ness is  to  be  tested  under  varying  treatments,  and  lay 
out  into  beds,  one  (or  two,  or  more,  if  desired)  yard 
square.  The  location  selected  should  be  such  as  to  give 
uniform  conditions  in  all  the  beds,  and  all  should  be  pre- 
pared alike.  Fall-sown  oats,  wheat,  or  barley,  are  suitable 


94  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

crops  for  tests  in  school  gardens.  From  the  usual  amount 
of  the  various  fertilizers  applied  per  acre,  we  may  cal- 
culate the  amounts  necessary  for  the  beds.  If  they  are 
just  one  yard  square,  divide  the  usual  quantities  by  the 
number  of  square  yards  per  acre  (4,840),  and  the  quo- 
tient will  indicate  the  amount  required  for  the  beds. 
It  is  recommended  that  a  space  of  two  feet  be  left  be- 
tween the  beds  to  guard  against  the  possibihty  of  the 
fertilizer  in  one  bed  affecting  results  in  adjacent  ones. 
The  location  should  be  one  not  subject  to  washing  or 
flooding. 

133a.  Scheme  for  Field  Tests  of  Different  Fertilizers.  Beds  exactly 
one  yard  square.   Walks  two  feet  wide. 

1.  Land  for  beds  plowed 2.  Harrowed,  or  raked    

3.  Beds  laid  out  and  staked.  . .       4.  Fertilizers  applied 

5.  Beds  planted    6.  Quantity  of  seed  to  each  bed .  . 

7.  Depth  planted   8.  Plants  appeared  above  ground 


Fertilizers 


Nothing  (check) 

Compost 

Wood  ashes 

Fresh  lime 

Common  salt 

Sodium  nitrate 

Acid  phosphate  .... 

Nothing  (check) 

Potash  (Kainit) 

Combination — 

Soluble  phosphate 

Sodium  nitrate. . . 

Nothing  (check) 

Combination — 

Phosphate 

Potassium  nitrate 
Nothing  (check) 


At  the  rate  per 
acre  in  pounds 


10,000-20,000 
1,000-3,000 
5,000-20,000 


100-300 
200-400 

100-300 

200-400 
200-300 


Quantity 
of  lbs.  ap 
plied  to  one 
square  yard 


2  lbs 
i  Ih. 

3  lbs 
1  oz 

1  oz 

2  oz 

1  oz 

1  oz 
1  oz 


Lbs.  of 
crop  har- 
vested 


CHAPTER  XIV 


PRODUCTIVENESS  OF   SOILS 


134.  Fertility  and  Productiveness  Compared.  A  soil 
may  be  fertile,  that  is,  rich  in  food  elements,  but  not  pro- 
ductive because  of  the  presence  of  some  harmful  sub- 
stance in  the  soil.  A  familiar  example  is  the  "clover 
sickness"  of  northern  soils.  A  soil  naturally  suited  to 
clover  will  grow 
several  splendid  crops, 
and  then  become 
"sick  of  clover,"  as 
they  say,  because 
clover  will  not  thrive 
any  longer.  The  soil 
is  still  rich  in  all  ele- 
ments of  fertility,  but 
not  productive  for  clo- 
ver because  of  some 
poisonous  substance 
thought  to  be  ex- 
creted or  produced  by 
the  decay  of  the  clo- 
ver roots.  If  planted 
to  other  crops  for  a 
few  seasons  it  will  re- 
cover its  former  pro- 
ductiveness. The  in- 
jurious results  of 
even  a  single  crop  of 


Fig.  49.  PoisonoTis  substances  in  the  soil, 
formed  by  decaying  vegetable  matter,  some- 
times keep  a  fertile  soil  from  being  pro- 
ductive. (Wheat  seedlings  grown  in:  (1) 
Pure  distilled  water ;  (2)  soU  extract ;  (3) 
same  soil  extract  from  which  the  poisonous 
substances  have  been  removed  by  absorp- 
tion with  carbon  black.)  Bureau  of  Soils. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


(95) 


96  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

sorghum  on  some  soils  is  much  greater  than  could  result 
from  the  loss  of  fertilizing  substance  removed  by  the 
crop.  The  effect  is  probably  due  to  the  formation  of 
some  harmful  substance  by  the  roots.  These  injurious 
substances  are  dissolved  in  the  soil  moisture.  Deep 
plowing  and  the  application  of  composts  tend  to  over- 
come the  bad  effects  of  the  poisonous  substances. 

135.  Soil  Conditions  That  Affect  Production.  The  in- 
telUgent  farmer  watches  his  crop  closely  from  day  to 
day,  and  studies  all  the  conditions  that  affect  the  vigor 
or  fruitfulness  of  his  crop,  of  which  there  are  many. 
The  general  health  of  the  plant  may  be  affected  as 
much  by  conditions  above  the  ground  as  by  conditions 
below  the  ground.  If  the  plants  are  not  growing  properly, 
close  observation  will  often  lead  one  to  discover  the 
unfavorable  condition,  and  a  remedy  for  it. 

136.  Excessive  Droughty  Conditions  are  noticed  by 
wilting,  twisting,  or  drooping  conditions  of  the  leaves. 
The  plants  endure  but  do  not  make  profitable  growth 
when  this  condition  exists,  even  for  a  part  of  the  day. 
Where  irrigation  is  not  possible,  prevention  is  the  only 
remedy.    (See  T[  95,  105.) 

137.  Wet  Soil  Conditions  often  cause  the  leaves  and 
stems  to  grow  slowly  and  assume  a  yellowish  cast,  with 
splashes  of  purple.  This  condition  is  not  the  result  of 
too  much  water  in  the  plant,  but  of  some  injurious 
effect  of  water-logged  soils  on  the  roots.  Many  plants 
can  be  grown  to  full  maturity  with  their  roots  in  water, 
but  not  ki  a  water-logged  soil.  Soils  that  frequently 
retain  injurious  amounts  of  water  should  be  drained. 
(See  H  107.) 

138.  Soils  Deficient  in  Essential  Elements.  Some  soils 
do  not  have  enough  of  some  one  or  more  of  the  essential 


Productiveness  of  Soils  97 

elements  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  crop.  It  is  im- 
portant in  this  particular  to  remember  that  forage  crops 
need  large  amounts  of  nitrogen,  and  grain  crops  much 
phosphorus.  The  fruit  crops  require  much  potash.  A 
soil  may  even  be  deficient  in  any  one  or  several  of  the 
essential  elements.  The  best  and  safest  guide  to  learn 
the  special  fertiUzing  needs  of  a  soil  is  to  try  by  test. 
(See  1  133a.) 

139.  Chemical  Elements  May  Not  Be  in  Balance.    A 
soil  may  contain  so  much  nitrogen  that  the  crop,  say 


J 

li 

m 

■'U       :'    i     i    :^ 

^ 

VH 

mmjm 

^ 

pi 

'      ^^^'-^a^s^ 

X 

^J 

SB 

Fig.  50.  Showing  the  effect  of  an  excess  of  lime  and  magnesia  on  plant  growth. 
Excess  of  lime  in  pots  on  left;  excess  of  magnesia  in  pots  on  right.  Nearly 
equal  amounts  of  each  in  center  pots.  From  Bull,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

grain  or  fruit,  goes  all  to  wood  and  leaf  and  does  not 
produce  a  harvest.  In  such  cases,  a  potash  or  a  phos- 
phate fertilizer  would  be  needed  to  balance  the  ration 
of  mineral  food.  Sometimes  some  element,  even  an 
essential  element,  may  be  in  excess.  Plants  require 
magnesium  and  calcium  (^  43),  but  an  excess  of  either 
may  be  the  cause  of  a  poor  result.  Fig.  50  shows  the  re- 
sult of  adding  lime  to  balance  an  excess  of  magnesia  in 
the  soil,  and  shows  the  effect  of  balanced  and  unbalanced 
amounts  of  calcium  and  magnesium  on  plant  growth. 
The  good  effects  that  sometimes  result  from  the  appli- 


98  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

cation  of  lime  may  be  due  to  the  establishment  of  bal- 
ance between  the  calcium  and  magnesium  as  just  men- 
tioned; to  the  effect  on  insoluble  potassium  or  phos- 
phorus compounds  {%  90) ;  to  a  mechanical  effect  on  the 
texture  of  the  soil  (%  73) ;  to  the  effect  of  lime  in  taking 
up  an  excess  of  acid  in  soils  (T[  141) ;  or  in  neutralizing 
some  forms  of  alkaU. 

140.  The  Mechanical  Condition  of  the  soil  may  be  the 
cause  of  unsatisfactory  crops.  Some  crops,  like  wheat,  do 
best  with  a  settled  sub-surface  soil,  while  beets,  potatoes 
and  many  other  crops  do  best  with  a  very  loose  soil.  To 
have  the  proper  mechanical  condition  of  a  soil  for  a 
particular  crop  is  of  great  importance.  It  is  in  this  par- 
ticular that  the  farmer  makes  the  greatest  effort  to  im- 
prove the  productiveness  of  his  soils.  Herein  lie  the  most 
important  problems  of  preparing  and  cultivating  the  soil. 
In  improving  the  mechanical  qualities,  the  important 
effects  to  be  considered  are: 

(a)  The  absorption  of  the  rainfall; 

(b)  The  retention  and  movement  of  the  water  in  the 
different  layers  of  soil; 

(c)  The  circulation  of  air  in  the  soil;  and 

(d)  The  absorption  and  retention  of  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  and  its  loss  by  radiation. 

While  these  properties  are  fixed,  in  a  large  degree,  by 
the  nature  of  the  substance  composing  the  soil,  they 
may  be  greatly  improved  by  the  ordinary  means  of 
tillage.  To  know  when  to  plow  is  just  as  important  as 
to  know  how  the  soil  should  be  plowed.  Who  can  tell 
when  and  why,  and  how  and  why  for  plowing  a  partic- 
ular piece  of  soil  to  prepare  for  a  particular  crop? 

140a.  The  following  topics  are  suggested  for  discussion  :  How 
many  kinds  of  soils  are  in  the  school  district?    What  crops  are 


Productiveness  of  Soils    •  99 

grown.  What  yields  are  secured?  Are  the  differences  in  yields  due 
to  the  properties  of  the  soil  or  to  the  way  the  soils  are  prepared  or 
the  way  the  crops  are  cultivated?  Is  fall  or  spring  breaking  pre- 
ferred? What  reasons  do  farmers  give  for  justifying  fall  breaking  or 
spring  breaking? 

141.  Sour,  or  Acid,  Soils  are  very  unfavorable  to  some 
crops.  Many  soils  are  slightly  acid,  as  will  be  found  when 
tested  with  litmus  paper.  They  differ  greatly  in  the 
degree  of  sourness.  Very  acid  soils  are  not  favorable 
for  alfalfa,  cotton,  etc.;  but,  for  corn  and  small  grains,  no 
rule  has  yet  been  suggested.  Soils  that  contain  injurious 
amounts  of  acid  are  found  in  swamps  or  in  sandy  uplands. 

141a.  To  Test  Soils  for  Acid,  use  a  small  slip  of  litmus  paper, 
secured  from  the  druggist.  Place  the  paper  against  the  moist  soil, 
and  the  color  after  some  minutes  will  change.  If  blue,  the  soil  is 
alkaline;  if  red,  it  is  acid.  More  reliable  results  will  be  secured  if 
the  soil  is  extracted  in  distilled  water,  and  then  tested  with  litmus 
or  other  indicator. 

141b.  To  Test  Soils  for  Free  Lime,  drop  a  small  lump  into  a 
glass  of  strong  vinegar.  If  lime  is  present  bubbles  will  continue  to 
stream  from  the  lump  for  some  minutes.  Soils  with  free  lime  pres- 
ent are  not  acid. 

141J.  Alkali  Salts  in  a  soil  may  be  the  cause  of  un- 
productiveness. There  are  several  kinds  of  very  soluble 
salts  that  accumulate  in  the  surface  soils,  most  fre- 
quently in  regions  of  low  rainfall.  Often  the  dwarfing 
effect  of  alkali  salts  is  confined  to  a  low  place,  a  wet- 
weather  seep,  or  other  place  where  a  quantity  of  soil- 
water  is  evaporated.  These  salts  are  formed  in  all  soils, 
but  where  the  rainfall  is  abundant  they  are  washed  out 
of  the  soil  by  percolating  water.  If  the  rain  is  all  evapo- 
rated from  the  surface,  it  will  cause  an  accumulation  of 
these  salts  near  the  surface  to  such  an  extent  that  injury 
to  the  plant  results.  Lime  is  sometimes  beneficial  on 
such  soils. 


CHAPTER  XV 
ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

142.  Rotation.  The  amount  of  mineral  food  which  a 
crop  will  take  from  the  soil  varies  with  the  kind  of  crop, 
depending  on  how  much  of  the  crop  is  removed  by  the 
yearly  harvest,  the  richness  of  the  land,  and  many 
seasonal  features  which  are  too  complex  to  be  discussed 
here.  By  referring  to  the  table  in  the  appendix  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  removed  by  the 
grain  crops  is  less  than  the  amount  removed  by  crops 
grown  for  their  roots.  It  will  be  noticed,  also,  that  grain 
crops  remove  or  require  large  amounts  of  phosphorus; 
root  crops,  potash;  and  hay  crops,  much  nitrogen;  an 
exception  being  made  for  legumes  like  alfalfa,  clover,  or 
cow  peas  when  grown  as  hay  crops  (^  117).  Some 
legume  crop  should  be  included  in  any  system  of  rota- 
tion. 

143.  Order  of  Succession  in  Rotation.  It  is  desirable 
to  arrange  the  rotation  so  that  the  same  land  does  not 
have  the  same  crop  twice  in  succession.  In  arranging  the 
crop  it  is  important  to  consider  the  order  in  which  the 
crops  should  follow  each  other.  Plants  with  shallow  roots 
should  follow  plants  with  deep-feeding  roots;  non-cul- 
tivated crops,  like  grain,  should  follow  cultivated  crops, 
because  the  land  will  be  in  better  tilth.  As  regards  the 
predominating  mineral  foods,  it  is  better  to  let  those 
crops  requiring  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  follow  potash- 
loving  crops,  or,  still  better,  legumes,  because  they 
will  leave  additional  amounts  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  which 

(100) 


Rotation  of  'Crops 


101 


Fig.  50a.  Oats  grown  on  soil  previously 
sown  to  mustard  and  vetch. 


will  be  very  beneficial  to  the  graiti;^but  not  so  necessary 
to  the  others.  Fig.  50a  shows  the  difference  in  a  crop 
of  oats  grown  on  soil  previously  green-manured  with  a 
crop  of  mustard  (a  non- 
legume)  and  when  green- 
manured  with  a  crop  of 
vetch.  This  result  shows 
strongly  the  need  of  in- 
cluding some  legume  in 
any  sort  of  rotation.  In 
some  soils  cover  crops  or 
heavy  applications  of 
fresh  manure  tend  to 
cause  too  rank  a  growth 
of  straw  in  the  small 
grains.  In  such  cases  it  is  advisable  to  allow  a  crop  of 
corn  to  come  before  the  small  grains. 

144.  Cover  Crops;  Catch  Crops.  Except  in  arid 
regions,  it  is  best  to  keep  the  land  constantly  occupied  by 
some  crop.  They  not  only  keep  the  land  continually  earn- 
ing something,  but  it  is  best  for  the  land.  A  field  that  is 
bare  or  fallow  loses  more  by  washing  and  leaching  than 
when  occupied  by  plants.  It  is  often  possible  to  grow  a 
quick-maturing  crop  after  the  principal  crops  have  been 
harvested,  for  example,  June  corn  after  potatoes  or 
small  grain;  cowpeas  after  corn. 

145.  Marketable,  or  Usable,  Crops.  In  planning  a 
rotation  or  selecting  a  cover  crop,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider what  may  be  successfully  sold,  or  used  to  advan- 
tage. This  will  depend  on  the  markets  and  the  farmer's 
facilities  for  keeping  and  feeding  certain  kinds  of  crops. 

146.  Other  Advantages  of  Rotation.  Besides  pre- 
serving the  soil  nutrients,  providing  for  their  better  dis- 


102  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

tribution,  facilitating  leitilizing,  rotation  (which  is 
closely  related  to  diversification)  affords  other  ad- 
vantages: 

(a)  Tends  to  free  the  land  from  noxious  weeds,  as  where 
oat  stubble  is  planted  to  June  corn,  the  late  cultivation 
of  the  corn  prevents  the  seeding  of  the  weeds,  such  as 
cockle  burs  or  Johnson  grass. 

(b)  Exterminates  insect  and  fungous  diseases.  Insect 
and  fungous  pests  usually  attack  only  particular  kinds  of 
crops.  If  the  same  crop  is  grown  on  the  same  land  year 
after  year,  the  larvae  of  insects  and  spores  of  the  fungi 
lodging  in  the  ground  during  the  fallow  season  will 
find  their  food  ready  when  the  season  is  ready  for  them 
to  multiply.    (See  ^  217  and  H  228.) 

(c)  Avoids  the  injurious  effects  of  growing  the  same 
crop  continuously  on  the  same  land.  Recent  investiga- 
tions have  shown  that  the  decreased  yields  resulting 
from  growing  the  same  crop  on  the  same  land  from  sea- 
son to  season  is  due  not  only  to  the  loss  of  mineral  nutri- 
ents, but  also  to  the  formation  of  toxic  substances  (^  134) 
in  the  soil.  These  toxic  substances  are  not  usually  inju- 
rious to  other  crops,  though  there  are  cases  known  where 
one  crop  will  leave  substances  in  the  soil  poisonous  to 
some  other  crop. 

147.  Distributes  the  Labor.  Rotation  and  diversifi- 
cation make  it  possible  for  the  work  to  be  more  evenly 
distributed  through  the  year.  Not  all  the  crops  will  need 
to  be  planted,  cultivated  or  harvested  at  the  same  time. 
The  farmer  will  thus  be  able  to  keep  busy,  and  not  have 
to  pay  out  so  much  for  help  during  rush  seasons  that 
come  with  a  one-crop  system  of  farming. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
RELATIONS  OF  PLANTS  ABOVE  THE  GROUND 

148.  We  have  now  found  out  a  few  things  about  the 
relation  of  the  plant  to  the  soil.  Soil  culture,  we  found 
to  be  making  a  home  for  the  roots.  What  can  we  do  to 
make  the  conditions  above  the  ground  more  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  the  crops? 

149.  Provide  for  Leaf  Development.  All  the  carbon 
in  plants,  which  is  fully  half  their  substance,  is  absorbed 
from  the  air  by  the  green  leaves,  and,  through  the  agency 
of  sunhght,  made  into  plant  substance.  The  leaf  is  a 
part,  or  organ,  where  the  raw  materials  are  brought 
together  and  made  into  the  foods  that  nourish  the  plant. 
It  is  plain,  then,  that  in  husbanding  plants  provision 
should  be  made  for  normal  leaf  development.  Leaves 
will  not  grow  unless  plenty  of  light  is  present.  This  is 
shown  when  plants  are  grown  in  darkness.  We  have 
often  noticed  how  the  leaves  arrange  themselves  so  that 
they  get  the  greatest  benefit  from  the  rays  of  light. 
Plants  growing  beside  a  wall  or  in  a  window  turn  their 
leaf  surfaces  toward  the  fight.  Vigorous  leaf  develop- 
ment is  possible  only  when  plants  are  far  enough  apart 
to  not  unduly  shade  each  other.  Too  many  plants  must 
not  be  allowed  to  grow  on  the  same  ground,  whether 
they  be  weeds  or  all  of  the  crop  planted.  When  the 
plants  are  too  close  together,  the  leaves  and  side  branches 
do  not  grow,  and  the  stem  spindles  up  in  an  effort  to 
reach  the  best  light.  The  individual  plants  are  thus 
weakened,  and  are  more  subject  to  the  attack  of  insects 

(103) 


104  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

and  fungi.  Weak,  poorly  nourished  plants  are  not  fruit- 
ful. Healthy  plants  have  large  leaves.  Large  leaves 
indicate  vigor.  The  rank-growing  weeds  have  large 
leaves.  Increasing  the  amount  of  leaf  surface  is  increas- 
ing the  capacity  of  the  plant  to  manufacture  plant 
substance. 

150.  Relation  of  Leaf  Surface  to  Soil  Moisture.  The 
total  leaf  surface  on  a  plant  may  be  several  times  the 
total  ground  surface  shaded  by  the  plant.  If  evapora- 
tion is  increased  by  the  winds  or  high  temperatures,  it 
may  happen  that  the  supply  of  soil  moisture  may  become 
exhausted  and  the  plant  suffer.  Soils  covered  with  plants 
lose  their  moisture  faster  than  if  they  are  bare  or  fallow. 
In  regions  of  slight  rainfall,  therefore,  it  often  becomes 
desirable  to  reduce  the  number  of  plants  to  prevent  too 
great  a  draft  on  the  stores  of  soil  moisture.  This  is  an 
additional  reason  for  leaving  space  between  the  indi- 
vidual plants  in  a  crop.    (See  H  102.) 

151,  How  Far  Apart  Should  Plants  Be  Grown?  Where 
the  value  of  the  crop  depends  on  the  perfect  develop- 
ment of  the  individual  plant,  or  some  special  part,  such 
as  the  leaves,  flowers,  fruits,  stems,  or  roots,  sufficient 
space  should  be  allowed  that  adjacent  plants  will  not 
interfere  with  each  other.  However,  the  value  of  the 
crop  often  depends  more  on  the  total  weight  of  the 
harvest  than  on  the  quality  of  the  individual  plants. 
In  such  cases,  the  loss  from  a  limited  amount  of  shade 
will  be  more  than  made  up  by  the  increased  number 
of  plants,  as  in  the  case  of  the  grain  crops.  Again,  the 
fertility  of  the  land  also  affects  the  size  of  the  plants, 
and,  of  course,  the  space  which  each  should  be  allowed. 
Often  the  use  for  which  the  crop  is  intended  must  be 
considered,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  sorghum  grown 


Relations  of  Plants  Above  the  Ground  105       — 

for  syrup  or  for  forage;  corn  grown  for  ensilage  or  for 
grain. 

152.  The  Vigor  of  Leaves  and  Stem  Growth.  The  size 
of  leaves  is  influenced  largely  by  the  amount  of  water 
available  to  the  plants  during  the  period  of  their  for- 
mation. From  this,  it  follows  that  plants  grown  for  their 
leaves,  like  cabbage,  lettuce,  hay  crops,  etc.,  do  best 
when  plenty  of  moisture  is  in  the  ground.  Light  is  neces- 
sary for  the  formation  of  leaves,  as  we  have  seen.  Where 
branches  are  shaded,  the  lower  leaves  are  small  and 
weak,  and  often  fall  off  before  the  season  ends.  As  the 
buds,  from  which  the  branches,  leaves  and  flowers  of  the 
succeeding  season  grow,  are  formed  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  and  take  their  vigor  from  them,  it  is  important 
that  fruit  trees  be  pruned  out  so  that  light  may  reach 
to  all  parts.    (See  Chapter  XVIII.) 

153.  The  Temperature  of  the  Air  is  subject  to  great 
and  often  sudden  variations,  whereas  the  soil,  as  we  have 
seen,  changes  its  temperature  very  slowly.  The  above- 
ground  portion  is  more  often  injured  by  extreme  cold 
or  excessive  heat  than  the  part  below  the  ground. 
The  first  effect  of  lowering  the  temperature  is  to  retard- 
the  growth  of  the  plant.  Cold  does  not  permanently 
affect  all  plants  alike.  Some  plants  are  killed  by  moder- 
ately low  temperature,  while  others  are  uninjured  even 
by  long  exposure  to  severe  freezing.  The  ill  effects  of 
freezing  are  more  severe  on  plants  when  full  of  sap. 
Peach  trees  may  endure  a  number  of  severe  freezes 
through  the  winter,  but  if  a  severe  cold  spell  comes 
late  in  the  spring,  after  the  buds  have  swollen,  the 
injury  is  often  considerable. 

Sometimes  the  bad  effects  are  due  to  the  sudden 
thawing,  more  than  to  the  cold  itself.  The  winter-killing 


106  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

of  the  cambium  layer  is  often  confined  to  the  east  side 
of  a  tree  where  the  early  sun  rays  cause  a  sudden  warm- 
ing. Delicate  plants,  fruits,  etc.,  may  often  be  saved 
by  protecting  from  too  rapid  thawing;  by  shielding 
from  the  sun's  rays,  bathing  in  cold  water,  etc.* 

154.  Buds  and  Nodes.  If  we  examine  the  branches  of 
almost  any  shrub  or  herb,  we  shall  find  that  they  are 
divided  into  segments  by  the  buds  at  the  nodes.  We  have 
already  found  a  reason  for  calling  the  former  nodes,  and 
the  spaces  between,  internodes.  The  buds  are  formed 
just  above,  or,  as  the  botanist  says,  in  the  axil  of  the  leaf, 
which  readily  explains  the  observation  that  the  vigor 
of  the  buds  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the  leaves  which 
nourish  them.  The  bud  at  the  end  of  the  shoot,  called 
the  "terminal  bud,"  is  usually  the  most  vigorous; 
but,  as  a  rule,  the  vigor  and  the  size  of  the  buds  de- 
crease as  we  pass  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  season's 
growth.  This  is  often  due  to  the  subsequent  shading  of 
the  lower  leaves, — often  to  the  extent  that  they  turn 
yellow  and  fall  off. 

155.  Structure  and  Classification  of  Buds.  If  we  exam- 
.  ine  some  large  buds,  such  as  the  buckeye,  sycamore,  or 

fig,  just  as  they  unfold  their  leaves  in  the  spring,  it 
will  be  very  plainly  seen  that  the  bud  scales  are  only 
transformed  leaves,  hence  they  are  called  scale-leaves 
to  distinguish  them  from  normal  leaves.  These  scale- 
leaves  cover  up  an  embryo  branch — a  branch  having 
miniature  leaves,  nodes  and  internodes.  Nature  formed 
these  buds,  or  embryo  branches,  early  in  the  preceding 
season.  Note  also  that  more  buds  were  formed  than  are 
likely  to  grow  into  branches.    (Fig.  52.) 

♦For  excellent  full  discussion  of  the  effects  of  temperature  on  plants,  and 
the  proper  treatment  to  lighten  the  bad  effects,  reference  should  be  made  to 
Goflf.  The  Principles  of  Plant  Culture;  Bailey,  The  Principles  of  Fruit  Culture. 


Relations  of  Plants  Above  the  Ground 


107 


156.  Leaf  Buds  and  Flower  Buds.  If  we  notice  the 
buds  on  peach  or  plum  branches  from  January  until 
spring,  we  shall  see  that  not  all  the  buds  are  the  same  size 
or  shape.  Some  are  pointed  and  slender,  and  will  form  a 
cluster  of  leaves  when  they  burst  forth  in  the  spring, 
and  are  hence  called  leaf  buds.  Others  are  broad  and 
rounded:  these  buds  are  flower  buds.    They  are  some- 


Fig.  51.  Leaf  buds  and  flower  buds  of  plum.  1.  Shoot  bearing  leaf -buds  only. 
2  A  bud  of  same  enlarged.  3  and  5.  Branches  having  leaf-buds  and 
flower-buds.  4,  6  and  7.  Buds  of  same  enlarged.  Flower-buds  at  /;  leaf- 
buds  at  I, 

times  called  fruit  buds,  but,  of  course,  the  flower  must 
always  precede  the  formation  of  the  fruit,  so  it  is  best 
to  call  them  flower  buds.  Just  below  each  bud  is  a  leaf 
scar.  Sometimes  we  shall  find  the  leaf  scars,  though  the 
buds  are  apparently  not  there.  They  are  there,  however, 
but  too  small  to  be  seen.  They  do  not  grow  unless  the  end 
of  the  branch  is  removed.  Such  buds  as  do  not  grow 
except  when  stimulated  are  called  latent  buds.    (Fig.  51.) 


108  Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 

157.  How  to  Distinguish  Flower  Buds.  Flower  buds 
are  formed  the  same  season  that  the  leaf  buds  are, 
though  it  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  the  two  kinds 
till  some  time  after  the  fall  of  the  leaves.  The  position  of 
the  bud  is  often  an  indication  of  its  kind.  We  notice, 
in  the  plum  twigs  illustrated  in  Fig.  51,  that  the  flower 
buds  are  on  the  side  of  the  leaf  buds.  We  also  noticed 
that    the    flower  buds  were    found 

only  on  the  wood  of  last  season's 
growth.  The  ''bearing  wood"  of  the 
peach,  plum,  and  other  similar  stone 
fruits,  is  formed  in  the  season  before 
the  flowers  appear.  Good  crops  of 
fruit  cannot  be  had  from  trees  of 
this  class  unless  sufficient  bearing 
wood  is  made  the  preceding  season. 
In  the  case  of  the  apple,  pear, 
quince,  etc.,  the  flower  buds  are  Fif^.^^^  Diagram^  of^^a 
formed  less  regularly.  They  occur  ^^'ece'sivefy '  iider  ^a^ 
on  the  ends  of  small  side  branches  ^s^^eTy'^'oHef '  &anch 
that  are  from  two  to  five  years  ^^^^Vs.'^AFte^mt 
old.  The  shape  and  place  of  appear-  ^®°- 
ance  of  the  flower  buds  vary  very  much  in  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  fruits.  It  is  important  that  one  should 
know  how  to  recognize  them  and  to  know  the  time  of 
their  formation  as  well.  It  often  gives  valuable  informa- 
tion as  to  how  and  when  to  cultivate  and  prune.  For 
illustration,  take  the  grape.  The  flower  clusters  are 
found  on  the  current  spring  shoots,  hence  we  prune 
heavily  to  promote  the  formation  of  new  wood. 

158.  Formation  of  Flower  Buds.  In  plants  that  are 
esteemed  for  their  flowers  or  fruits,  it  is  desirable  to 
know  all  the  conditions  that  promote  the  formation  of 


Relations  of  Plants  Above  the  Ground  109 

flower  buds.  Some  sorts  are  naturally  more  inclined  to 
form  flowers  than  others,  still  we  can  promote  the 
fruitfulness  of  the  plants  by  giving  them  proper  treat- 
ment. Every  one  has  noticed  that  the  trees  bloom  more 
profusely  some  seasons  than  others.  This  has  led  many 
persons  to  study  the  conditions  that  induce  the  forma- 
tion of  flower  buds. 

159.  Conditions  That  Promote  the  Formation  of  Flower 
Buds.  Flower  buds  are  formed  in  the  greatest  abundance 
when  the  reserve  food  is  considerably  in  excess  of  the 
current  needs  of  the  plant.  If  a  plant  is  growing  too 
rapidly,  using  up  all  the  food  as  fast  as  the  leaves  make 
it,  flowers  are  not  formed  in  abundance.  They  may  be 
stimulated  to  form  flower  buds  by  checking  the  growth, 
either  by  reducing  the  water  supply,  by  removing  the 
tips  (terminal  buds)  of  the  shoots,  or  by  restricting  the 
growth  of  the  roots.  When  plants  are  young,  or  just  at 
the  opening  of  spring,  in  the  case  of  fruit  trees,  they 
grow  very  rapidly.  Flower  buds  already  formed  will  open, 
but  flew  ones  are  not  formed  till  the  warm,  dry  winds 
have  checked  the  rapid  growth  of  the  shoots.  This  check- 
ing of  the  growth  allows  the  formation  of  reserve  food 
in  excess  of  what  the  plant  is  using  for  growth.  To  en- 
courage the  formation  of  the  flower  buds,  then,  we  should 
promote  the  accumulation  of  reserve  food. 

160.  How  to  Promote  the  Accimiulation  of  Reserve 
Food.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  three  following 
rules  are  safe  guides: 

(a)  Provide  favorable  conditions  for  food  formation 
in  the  leaves.  Light  and  a  free  circulation  of  air  are  essen- 
tial. These  may  be  secured  by  giving  the  plants  plenty 
of  distance,  or  by  pruning  out  useless  branches.  The 
normal  healthy  conditions  of  the  foUage  should  be  pre- 


110  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

served.  Plants  suffering  from  the  attacks  of  insects 
or  fungi  are  not  fruitful  because  they  are  imperfectly 
nourished. 

(b)  Provide  the  roots  with  the  proper  amounts  of 
phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  nitrogen.  An  excess  of  nitro- 
gen tends  to  favor  growth  of  leaves  and  shoots  at  the 
expense  of  flowers.  Phosphorus  and  potash  favor  the 
formation  of  flowers  and  the  full  development  of  the 
fruit  and  seeds. 

(c)  Check  any  unusual  or  unnecessary  growth  of  the 
stems  by  withholding  excessive  supplies  of  water.  This 
check  to  the  growth  naturally  results  when  the  warm 
weather  of  the  summer  sets  in.  Where  the  plants  are 
grown  under  glass  it  is  often  possible  to  regulate  the  time 
of  flowering  by  controlling  the  water  supply. 

161.  Fruiting  in  Perennial  Plants  is  sometimes  so 
excessive  that  they  are  greatly  damaged.  Fruit  trees 
"overbear"  to  such  an  extent  that  they  exhaust  all  the 
reserve  food,  and  the  flower  buds  do  not  develop  for  the 
succeeding  crop.  This  gives  rise  to  the  habit  of  producing 
a  crop  every  other  year,  noticed  in  apples  and  peaches. 

162.  Sterile  Plants,  or  other  plants  that  are  kept  from 
fruiting,  tend  to  become  perennial.  If  the  formation  of 
fruits  is  prevented  or  removed  while  young,  they  con- 
tinue to  grow  and  form  new  flowers.  In  this  way,  sweet 
peas,  nasturtiums,  and  other  plants  grown  for  their 
flowers,  have  their  blooming  period  prolonged.  Garden 
plants  of  which  the  fruit  is  gathered  immature,  as  beans, 
cucumbers  and  okra,  grow  much  longer  than  they  would 
if  the  first  fruits  formed  were  allowed  to  mature  and 
exhaust  the  plant.  Clover,  grown  so  extensively  in  the 
North  and  in  some  southern  states,  is  a  biennial ;  though, 
if  prevented  from  fruiting,  it  becomes  a  perennial. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  OFFICE  OF  FLOWERS 

163."  We  have  already  mentioned  some  of  the  con- 
ditions that  promote  the  free  formation  of  flowers.  We 
might  call  it  the  conditions  necessary  for  fruitfulness, 
for  the  flower  is  only  a  step  in  the  formation  of  the  fruit 
and  seeds.  Some  plants  are  cultivated  only  for  their 
leaves,  stems  or  roots — as  cabbages,  lumber  trees,  or  pota- 
toes. Most  plants,  however,  owe  their  value  to  the  crop 
of  seed  or  fruit  which  they  bear.  In  the  latter  class,  in- 
cluding the  fruits  and  grains,  it  is  not  only  necessary  that 
the  flowers  be  formed,  but  that  they  should  form  seed 
abundantly.  They  must  ''set  seed,"  as  the  farmer  says. 
To  understand  this  process,  we  must  know  more  about 
the  structure  and  the  use  of  the  different  parts  of  a 
flower. 

164.  Structure  of  Flowers.  Flowers  are  very  varied  in 
their  form,  size,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  their  parts. 
If  we  should  closely  examine  a  flower  of  a  peach  or  a 
geranium,  to  take  familiar  examples,  we  shall  find  that  it 
has  several  parts,  each  of  which  contributes  some  service 
to  the  success  of  the  plant's  effort  to  form  seed.  We 
have  already  learned  that  a  seed  is  usually  an  embryo 
plant,  with  a  store  of  reserve  food,  both  inclosed  in  a 
protecting  case  called  the  seed  coat. 

165.  The  Names  of  the  Parts.  We  must  learn  the  parts 
of  a  flower  and  their  names.  We  first  notice  the  brightly 
colored  petals.  They  attract  our  attention  and  that  of 
the  bee  also.    The  bee  long  ago  learned  to  recognize 

(111) 


112 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


these  brightly  colored  parts  as  sign-boards  directing 
it  to  the  nectar  below.  The  pleasant  scent  or  odor 
serves  the  same  purpose. 

166.  There  are  five  petals  in  the  peach-blossom,  all 
separate,  but  in  the  morning-glory  they  are  united. 
Whether  united  or  separate,  taken  together  they  are 
termed  corolla.  (Fig.  53.)  Just  below  the  corolla  there  are 
usually  five  small  green  leaves  which  are  named  sepals, 
and,  when  taken  together,  the  calyx.    The  corolla  and 


Peach-blossom  cut  open,  to  show  the  parts  of  Calyx  and  corolla  of  Morn- 

the  flower.  ing-Glory. 

[Fig.  53.     Peach-blossom  and  morning-glory. 

calyx  were  called  the  floral  envelope  by  the  older  botan- 
ists. Inside  of  the  corolla  are  a  number  of  small  yellow- 
ish masses  on  slender  stalks.  These  yellowish  bodies  are 
called  pollen  cases ^  or  anthers.  When  ripe,  they  produce 
the  fine  yellow  dust,  or  pollen.  In  the  center  of  the  whorl 
of  stamens  is  the  pistil.  There  are  three  parts  in  the 
pistil.  At  the  top  it  usually  has  a  slightly  knob-like 
portion  called  the  stigma,  covered  with  a  thick,  gummy 
liquid.  The  stigma  is  sticky,  to  catch  and  germinate  the 
pollen  brought  from  its  own  or  other  flowers.  Below 
the  stigma  is  a. slender  portion,  the  style,  and  then  the 
swollen  base,  the  ovary.    The  ovary  is  the  part  that 


The  Office  of  Flowers 


113 


AtsP.m,  At  8  a.m.  the  next  morn» 

ing. 

Fig.  54.  The  opening  of  a  flower  of  Kieffer  pear,  showing  the  unfolding  of  the 
parts  in  blooming.  The  flowers  of  pears  and  apples  have  five  .styles  and 
stigmas.   All  natural  size.   From  American  Gardening. 

grows  after  the  other  parts  of  the  flowers  have  fallen. 
It  becomes  the  cherry  with  its  seed,  the  pea  pod,  the 
corn  grain,  the  pecan  with  hull,  etc. 

167.  Use  of  the  Parts  of  the  Flower.  Now  that  we  have 
examined  a  flower  and  learned  to  recognize  the  parts,  we 
want  to  know  what  these  parts  do.  We  have  already 
learned  that  the  bright  color  of  the  corolla  serves  to  guide 
the  bee  or  butterfly,  or  other  nectar-eating  insect,  to  the 


Fig.  55.  Flowers  of  scarlet  sage,  showing  how  pollination  takes  place. 
A,  Position  of  anther  when  the  bee  sips  nectar;  B,  stigma  (sO  in 
position  to  be  pollinated. 


114 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


drop  of  food  at  the  base  of  the  ovary.  When  the  bee 
enters  the  flower  to  gather  bee-bread  (pollen)  and  the 
honey,  or  nectar,  at  base  of  pistil,  some  of  the  pollen  is 
lodged  on  its  head  and  legs  and  body.  When  it  enters 
the  next  flower,  some  of  this  pollen  is  caught  by  the 

stigma.  (Fig.  55.)  Many 
kinds  of  flowers  are  solely 
dependent  on  the  going  and 
coming  of  insects  to  bring 
about  pollination  and,  there- 
fore, the  formation  of  fruit 
and  seed.  We  used  to  think 
that  flowers  had  their  gor- 
geous colors  to  please  man's 
fancy.  We  now  know  that  it 
is  to  attract  the  lowly  in- 
sects. Usually,  night-bloom- 
ing flowers  are  white  and 
give  off  their  odors  more 
strongly  at  night  (study  the 
tuberoses,  rain  lilies,  night- 
blooming  cereus,  moon-flow- 
ers, etc.),  in  order  to  attract 
the  night-flying  moths.  Blue 
and  red  flowers  are  day 
bloomers. 

168.  Growth  of  the  Pollen 
Grains.  The  pollen  grain  is 
a  very  small  body,  consisting  of  one  or  two  cells. 
When  it  is  deposited  on  the  moist  stigma,  it  begins  to 
grow  a  slender  tube  (pollen-tube)  down  into  the  ovary. 
169.  Fertilization.  The  pollen-tube  produces  a  small 
cell  that  contains  a  nucleus  that  passes  into  and  unites 


Fig.  56.  Diagrammatic  section  of 
ovary  and  ovule  at  time  of  fertili- 
zation, m,  micropyle;  k,  egg  cell; 
The  pollen  tube  has  grown  down 
through  the  style,  between  the 
walls  of  the  ovary  and  ovule,  to 
the  egg  cell,  k,  of  the  embryo  sac. 


"LAST  ROSE" 
A  Hybrid  Produced  by  Prop.  T.  V.  Munson.  Combining  the  Fox  Grape 
of  the  North.   Postoak  Grape  of  Southwest,  and  Wine  Grape  of  Europe 


The  result  of  pollenizing  the  Herbert  grape  with  different  varieties. 

1.  By  Niagara,  4,  By  Herbert,  7.  By  Eldorado. 

2.  By  Worden.  5.  By  Brighton.  8,  By  Lmdley, 

3.  By  Catawba,  6,  By  Merrimack.  9,  By  Salem. 

After  Beach,  New  York  Experiment  Station. 


The  Office  of  Flowers 


115 


with  the  female  cells  in  the  ovule.  (Fig.  56.)  This  pro- 
cess is  called  fertilization  or  fecundation.  When  fertili- 
zation takes  place,  the  fruit  is  ''set"  and  the  ovary 
begins  to  grow.  The  corolla,  stamens,  etc.,  wither  and 
fall  away.  If  fertilization  does  not  take  place,  the  entire 
flower  withers  and  dies  in  most  cases, — the  exceptions 
being  the  fleshy  seedless  fruits,  as  seedless  grapes  and 
oranges. 

170.  The  Growth  of  the  Fruit  and  Seeds.  After  fertili- 
zation, the  ovary  and,  in  many  plants,  other  adjacent 
parts,  begin  to  grow  rapidly.  The  reserve  food  of  the 
stems  moves  rapidly  through  the  little  twig  that  sup- 
ported the  flower  into  the  fruit.  The  fruit  contains  the 
seed.  Seed  production  exhausts  the  plant.  Nearly  all 
the  reserve  food  passes  into  the  seed  and  fruits.  Often 
more  than  half  of  the  substance  of  a  plant  is  collected 
into  the  seeds,  as  in  common  field  corn. 

171.  Importance  of  Pollination.  Pollination  and  fecun- 
dation are  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  fruits  and 
seeds,  except  in  some  kinds  of  seedless  fruits,  like  the 
banana.  In  some  varieties  of  strawberries  the  pollen 
is  not  produced  in  suflScient  quantity  to  cause  the  fruit 
to  set.  In  such  cases  it  is  usual  to  plant  varieties  pro- 
ducing pollen  freely,  in  alternate  rows.  (Fig.  57).  The 
bees,  going  back  and 
forth  from  one  variety 
to  the  other,  carry 
sufficient  pollen  to 
make  the  fruit  set  on 
the  fine  sorts.     Some 

1  varieties     of     plums 

and  pears,  while  pro-  ^'^^-  ^^-  Flowers  of  the  strawberry.  A,  a 
J       .  flower  having  both  stamens  and  pistils;  B, 

dUCmg        pollen,        are  flower  of  a  kind  having  pistils  only. 


life  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

sterile  to  their  own  pollen.  Many  varieties  of  grapes 
also  do  not  set  fruit  when  pollinated  with  their  own 
pollen.     The  illustration    facing   page    115   shows   the 


Fig.  58.     Injurious  effect  of  self-pollination  shown  in  pile  at  right.    Alter 
Hartley,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

effect  of  pollen  of  several  varieties  of  grape  on  the 
Herbert  grape.  Some  varieties  make  good  pollinizers 
while  others  do  not.  If  one  is  planting  Herbert  grapes, 
other  varieties  should  be  planted  nearby  to  furnish 
pollen.  In  the  same  way,  an  orchard  of  KiefTer  pears 
will  be  more  fruitful  if  trees  of  other  varieties  are  in 
the  orchard.  The  bees  will  carry  the  pollen  back  and 
forth  as  they  go  from  flower  to  flower.  Sometimes  in 
long-continued  rainy  weather  during  the  flowering  sea- 
son a  full  crop  of  fruit  is  not  set,  because  the  bees  are 
unable  to  visit  the  flowers  freely. 

172.  Not  All  Plants  Pollinated  by  Insects.  Some  plants, 
like  wheat,  oats,  cotton,  beans,  etc.,  are  ordinarily  self- 
poUinated,  that  is,  the  pollen  in  the  flower  is  produced 
so  that  it  naturally  falls  on  the  stigma.  Many  other 
plants,  as  the  pine  trees,  field  corn,  willows,  etc.,  are 
solely  dependent  on  the  wind  to  carry  the  pollen  from 
one  flower  to  another.  There  are  many  interesting 
adaptations  for  bringing  about  pollination,  which  cannot 
be  discussed  here. 


The  Office  of  Flowers 


117 


173.  Cross-Fertilization  is  Important  in  many  plants. 
There  are  many  plants  that  are  normally  self-fertilized 
and  whose  progeny  do  not  seem  to  lack  vigor.  However, 
most  plants  give  better  seed  from  cross-fertilization, 
that  is,  having  the  pollen  to  come  from  different  plants. 
Seeds  originating  from  normal  cross-fertilization  are 
usually  more  vigorous,  healthy  and  productive  than 
seeds  resulting  from  self-fertilization.  The  Illinois 
experiment  station  found  a  difference  of  about  ten 
bushels  per  acre  in 
the  yield  of  corn 
between  seed  pro- 
duced by  cross- 
fertiUzation  (Fig. 
58)  and  that  by 
self-fertilization. 

C  ontinuous 
self  -fertilization 
leads  to  complete 
sterility  in  plants 
that  are  normally 
cross-fertilized,  as 
corn,  etc.  Fig.  59. 
Darwin  found 
that  after*  eleven 
generations  of 
self-fertilization 
the  scarlet  runner 
failed  to  set  seed, 
while  the  plants 
produced  by  as 
many  generations  by  cross-fertilization  were  much 
more  healthy  and  fruitful  than  the  original  stock. 


\      fe"^ 

■Pf- L 

^m 

^jsp 

^il^ 

;  f«,Jraj 

^^1^^ 

'/     ~  M^O 

"""""^^Hr****^ 

kc^: 

!          ' 

^1 

Fig.  59.  Effect  of  inbreedinji.  A,  Cro.ss-bred;  B, 
inbred  five  years.  From  Bulletin,  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  PLANTS 


174.  The  Pruning  and  Training  of  Plants  have  for  their 
object  the  improving  of  the  relations  of  the  plant  to 
the  sunlight  and  air.  They  are  very  old  arts,  that  were 
well  developed  before  we  understood  how  the  sunlight 
and  air  were  of  use  to  the  plant. 

175.  The  Effect  of  Pruning.  The  practice  of  improv- 
ing the  usefulness  of  plants  by  removing  some  part  is 
founded  on  the  the  principle  that 
suppression  of  growth  in  one  part 
stimulates  growth  in  others.  The 
manner  and  season  of  pruning 
govern  the  result. 

176.  Pinching.  If  we  should 
pinch  out  the  terminal  bud  from 
a  leafy  branch  during  the  rapid- 
growing  season  of  spring,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  60,  it  would  result  in  a 
temporary  check  to  the  lengthen- 
ing of  the  branch  and  a  more 
rapid  swelling  and  better  nourish- 
ing of  the  buds  below.  If  only 
the  tip  were  removed,  probably 
only  one  of  the  buds  left — the 
uppermost — would  form  a  new 
shoot.  This  would  soon  grow  out 
and  take  the  place  of  the  one 
removed.     This  pinching  usually 

(118) 


Fig.  60.    Pruning  by- 
pinching. 


Pruning  and  Training  Plants  119 

gives  a  stocky  growth  to  the  branch  and  favors  the 
formation  of  fruit-buds  (T[  159). 

177.  Summer  Pruning  of  Blackberries.  If  the  new 
shoots  of  blackberries  be  pruned  off,  the  buds  below 
will  form  several  branches.  As  the  fruit  of  the  following 
season  will  be  borne  on  this  growth,  we  see  how  summer 
pruning  may  increase  the  fruitfulness  of  blackberries. 

178.  Light  Pruning  in  the  Dormant  Season  stimulates 
branching.  If  a  branch,  like  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  72 
on  page  127,  were  pruned  at  X,  two,  or  possibly  three, 
of  the  next  lower,  buds  might  grow  into  fairly  vigorous 
leafy  branches,  with  many  strong  buds.  If  left  unpruned, 
it  would  probably  grow  straight  out,  forming  a  slender 
shoot  with  very  feeble  side  branches,  too  poorly  nour- 
ished to  form  many  fruit-buds.  Thus  we  see  that  prun- 
ing may  stimulate  branching,  thickening  of  the  stems, 
and  a  freer  formation  of  bearing  wood  (branches  with 
flower-buds) ,  This  kind  of  pruning  is  often  practiced  on 
all  kinds  of  orchard  trees  and  berry  plants,  and  is  fre- 
quently referred  to  as  '^ cutting  back"  or  ''heading-in." 
This  kind  of  pruning  is  quite  necessary  for  the  first  few 
seasons'  pruning  of  newly  set  orchards. 

179.  Why  Prune  Plants?  We  see  from  the  illustra- 
tion given  that  pruning  may  be  used  to  (1)  check  growth, 
(2)  induce  branching,  to  give  correspondingly  more  leaf 
surface.  The  latter  causes  the  branches  to  be  better 
nourished  and,  hence,  to  grow  thicker  and  form  more 
flower-buds.  (See  H  159.)  Any  kind  of  pruning  that 
retards  growth  tends  to  increase  fruitfulness  and  a  bet- 
ter ripening  of  the  branches.  Pruning  is  sometimes  ob- 
jected to,  with  the  idea  that  nature  knows  what  is  best 
for  the  plant.  Persons  who  advocate  no  pruning  forget 
that  orchard  plants  are  grown  in  an  environment  that 


120 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


leads  to  an  unusual  development  of  the  branches,  and 
that  such  unusual  growth  does  not  favor  the  develop- 
men  of  fruitfulness  (1[  159).  Practical  experience  has 
long  proven  that  the  proper  pruning  of  orchard  trees 
makes  them  fruitful  and  profitable.  Pruning  is  not 
merely  removing  so  many  branches  or  brush.  The 
pruning  should  be  done  at  the  place  that  will  pro- 
duce the  desired  result.  Herein  lies  the  value  of  an 
understanding  why  and  how  pruning  should  be  done. 

180.  Pruning  to  Stimulate  Growth.  Sometimes  a 
plant  or  tree  will  cease  to  make  the  normal  amount  of 
healthy  growth.  If  such  condition  is  not  the  result  of 
improper  soil  conditions,  very  severe  pruning  of  the 
branches  may  bring  about  a  renewal  of  active  growth. 
Very  old  orchard  trees  are  sometimes  improved  by  a  se- 
vere pruning.  Pruning  of  orchard  trees  or  shade  trees 
may  be  overdone,  producing  such  a  shock  that  the  plant 
is  weakened  rather 

than  stimulated. 

181.  Pruning  to 
Hasten  or  Delay  Ma- 
turity. Pruning  to 
hasten  maturity  is  sel- 
dom practiced  except 
on  nursery  stock  (re- 
moving the  leaves), 
or  on  tobacco  plants. 
It  is  usual  to  remove 
the  seed -pods  from 
flowering  plants,  such 
as  sweet  peas,  etc.,  in 
order  to  prolong  the 

flowering  period.    The       Fig.  ei    An  example  of  thinning.  After  Goff. 


Pruning  and  Training  Plants 


121 


food  substance  that 
would  be  used  in  ma- 
turing the  seed  is  used 
to  build  new  flower- 
buds. 

182.  Pruning  to  Pro- 
tect  Plants  from  dis- 
ease  and   mechanical 
injury  is  often  neces- 
sary.   Dead  branches 
may  fall  and  do  much 
injury    to    the    other 
limbs  unless  removed; 
or,  they  may  become 
diseased  by  the  fungi 
of  decay  and  transmit 
the   disease  to   the 
heart-wood  of  the 
trunk,  thus  mak- 
ing    the     plant 
weaker.    Fig.  62. 
Dead  or  diseased 
branches,  such 
as     pear     blight, 
should  be  cut  off 
below    the    dis- 
eased  part,    and 
burned  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  the 
disease. 

183.  Thinning 
Fruit  is  a  form  of 
pruning.  It  often 


Fig.  62.  Effect  of  improper  pruning.  The  larger 
stump  became  diseased  and  the  heart- wood 
in  turn.  The  fungus  mycelium  caused  the 
heart-wood  to  decay,  as  shown  in  the  cross- 
section.  The  fruiting  fungus  is  shown  at  A. 
From  photographs  by  Prof.  Geo.  F.  Atkinson. 


122 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


happens  that  a  fruit  tree  will  set  more  fruit  than  it 
should  mature.  Nature  causes  many  of  these  young 
fruits  to  fall  off,  but  not  always  sufficiently.  Where 
too  much  fruit  is  left  on  the  branches,  the  trees  "over- 
bear," with  the  result  that  they  do  not  prove  fruitful  in 
the  season  following.  All  the  reserve  food  is  used  up  in 
maturing  the  crop  and,  therefore,  flower-buds  are  not 
formed.  (See  f  159.)  Another  good  reason  for  thinning 
is  found  in  bietter  quality  of  the  fruit.  A  dozen  good 
peaches  will  sell  for  more  than  a  gallon  of  "pie  peaches." 
184.  Root-pruning.  In  healthy  plants  there  is  a 
balance  between  root-surface  and  leaf-surface.  If  a 
plant  is  growing  too  vigorously,  it  may  be  checked  by 
running  a  spade  into  the  ground  to  sever  some  of  the 
roots. 


Fig.  63.    Tree  properly  pruned 
before  setting  out 


Fig.  64.   A  badly  shaped  top,  due  to 
not  cutting  back  when  set  out 


Pruning  and  Training  Plants 


123 


A  fi  C  D 

Fig.  65.  A,  cutting  too  far  above  the  bud;  B,  cut- 
ting too  close;  C,  the  cut  as  it  should  be;  D, 
removal  of  a  branch,  the  cross-line  indicating 
the  proper  place  for  the  cut. 


185.  Pruning  Transplanted  Plants.  In  transplanting 
plants  many  of  the  roots  are  destroyed,  thus  destroying 
a  natural  balance.  Transplanted  plants,  especially 
woody  ones,  should 
have  all  injured 
and  extra-long 
roots  removed  and 
the  top  cut  back 
correspondingly. 
(Figs.  63  and  64.) 

186.  How  to 
Make  the  Cuts  in 
Pruning.  When  a 
branch  is  removed, 
we  expose  a  part  of 
the  cambium  and  woody  portions.  Unless  this  is  quickly 
healed  over,  the  wound  may  become  diseased,  and  the 
entire  plant,  in  turn,  before  the  callus  grows  over  the  cut 
surface.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that,  in  pruning,  noth- 
ing but  sharp  instruments  be  used,  so  that  the  cuts  will 
be  smooth.  Not  only  should  suitable  tools  be  used,  but 
care  should  be  exercised  to  make  the  cuts  so  that  the 
least  amount  of  callus  will  be  needed  to  close  the  wound. 
Callus  cells  are  nourished  by  the  reserve  food.  This 
suggests  that  the  line  of  cut  should  be  close  to  the  sup- 
plies of  reserve  food.  If  a  small  branch  is  to  be  cut  off, 
make  the  cut  close  to  a  bud,  as  shown  in  Fig.  65  C.  The 
bud  will  grow  out  and  the  cut  will  heal  over.  If  cut  too 
far  above  the  bud,  A,  a  dead  stub  will  remain  that  cannot 
be  healed  over.  If  cut  too  close  to  the  bud,  B,  the  bud 
will  die,  and  we  have  a  stub  the  full  length  of  the  inter- 
node.  Side  branches  should  be  pruned  close  up  to  the 
main  stem,  D. 


124 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agricvlture 


1 


\ 


Roots  of  trans- 
planted plants 
should  be  se- 
verely pruned.  It 
is  not  the  length 
of  the  roots  left 
that  favor  the 
plant,  but  the 
quickness  with 
which  new 
branches  with 
root -hairs  are 
formed.  Severe 
pruning  pro- 
motes vigorous 
branching    in 

many  plants,  notably  the  strawberry,  celery,  etc. 

187.  In  Removing  Large  Limbs,  extra  care  should  be 

taken  to  get  the  cuts  at  the  proper  place  and  angle. 


Fig.  66.    Showing  proper  position  and  angle  of  cut 
to  use  in  removing  large  limbs. 


Fig.  67.  Fig.  68.  Fig.  69 

Healing  of  properly  made  cuts.    Photographs  by  Prof.  F.  A.  Waugh. 


Pruning  and  Training  Plants 


125 


Figs.  66,  67  and  68  are  good  examples.  We  have  already- 
noticed  the  bad  results  from  improper  cuts,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  62.    (See  Tf  59.) 

188.  Pruning  Orchard 
Trees.  Before  we  can  intel- 
ligently prune  even  young 
orchard  trees,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  decide  on  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  branches 
desired  in  the  matured  tree. 
Whatever  the  number 
and  arrangement  of  the 
branches,  they  should  be 
low  enough  to  allow  the 
fruit  to  be  gathered  easily, 
and  high  enough  not  to 
interfere  with  the  easy  care 
and  cultivation  of  the 
ground.  Some  prefer  to 
have  the  outline  of  the 
pear  trees  pyramidal,  with 
a  central  supporting  trunk, 
such  is  shown  in  Fig.  70. 
For'  most  orchard  trees, 
possibly  for  pears  also,  it  is 
preferable  to  have  a  number  ^^-^O-  Pyramidal  form  of  top. 
of  strong  branches  starting  out  from  two  to  four  feet 
from  the  ground.  That  portion  from  which  the  leading 
branches  start  is  called  the  head.  This  gives  an  open 
center  to  the  tree  and  allows  more  light  to  the  smaller 
interior  branches,  and  keeps  even  the  top  of  the  tree 
within  reach.  Fig.  71  shows  the  framework  of  an  open- 
headed  tree.    Fig.  72  shows  the  starting  of  such  a  head, 


■ 


l26  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

and  Fig.  73  further  thickened  and  made  stocky  by 
"heading  in."  The  branches  should  not  start  out  from 
the  same  place,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  74.  Such  branches 
often  split  out  when  strong  winds  prevail. 


:^ii5'jvk,... ^  ^,^ . 

Fig.  71.     Open-headed  tree;  vase  form  of  top. 

189.  Pruning  and  Training  Grape-vines.  The  stem 
of  the  grape  is  too  weak  to  stand  without  support.  In 
nature  it  grows  over  the  outer  branches  of  trees,  some- 
times forming  a  canopy  over  the  tops  of  small  trees. 
Cultivated  grapes  are  given  supports  made  with  posts 
and  smooth  wire.  In  order  to  keep  the  bulk  of  the  vines 
within  limits  and  to  increase  their  fruitfulness,  they  are 
severely    pruned   every    winter.     This    heavy    pruning 


Fig.  72.     Starting  of  an  open-headed  tree. 


Fig.  73.  It  is  tisuaily  desirable  to 
head-in  young  trees  for  two  or 
three  years   after   planting;  it 

makes  them  stockier. 


Fig.  74.  Improperly  trained.  The 
limbs  start  too  close  together. 
The  first  big  crop  will  split  off 
some  of  them. 


128 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


makes  the  new  branches  grow  very  vigorously,  but,  as 
the  fruit  in  grapes  is  borne  on  the  new  wood,  this  is 
very  desirable.    (See  t  157.) 

The  growth  of  the  vine  for  the 
first  season  after  transplanting  is 
cut  back  to  a  single  shoot,  for 
at  least  four  or  five  feet.  This  is 
tied  up  to  the  central  wire  and 
forms  the  permanent  stock,  or 
stem.  In  pruning,  after  the  first 
year,  from  two  to  four  arms,  or 
branches,  are  left  to  produce  the 
bearing  wood.  The  number  and 
length  of  the  arms  will  vary  with 
^^^^^^^^^  the  vigor  of  the  plants.    Weak- 

Fig.  75.  Y-system  of  pruning  growiug  viues  are  usually  left 
and  training  grapes.  ^^^^i  Only  two  or  three  arms. 
The  most  desirable  form  of  grape  trellis  is  that  shown 
in  Fig.  76,  known  as  the  Canopy,  or  Munson  trellis. 
This  kind  of  trellis  allows  more  leaves  to  be  exposed  to 
the  light,  and  gives  more  color  and  flavor  to  the  fruit. 


Fig.  76.    Munson  system  of  training  and  trellising    grapes. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS 

190.  How  Plants  Propagate.  Plants  propagate  natu- 
rally by  seeds  and  by  the  formation  of  special  parts., 
which  become  separated  and  independent  of  the  parent 
plant,  as  bulbs  in  onions,  stolons  or  runners  in  straw- 
berries, tubers  (thickened  stems)  in  Irish  potatoes,  and 
by  roots,  as  in  the  sweet  potatoes,  and  in  many  other 
special  ways.  These  are  natural  methods  of  multipli- 
cation, and  take  place  without  man's  assistance.  Often 
man  provides  the  conditions  which  favor  multiplication 
in  these  ways.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  impor- 
tant conditions  to  be  controlled  in  causing  the  embryo 
plants  of  sprouting  seeds  to  grow.  The  other  natural 
processes  of  multipUcation,  i.  e.,  by  tubers,  bulbs,  etc., 
are  matters  of  every-day  knowledge,  and  are  used  for 
propagating  a  variety  of  plants.  We  speak  of  the  former 
as  propagation  by  seedage,  and  the  latter  as  propagation 
by  division. 

191.  Seedage.  In  preparing  land  for  seeds,  it  is  not 
sufficient  that  the  seed-bed  provide  simply  the  conditions 
favorable  for  germination,  but  should  be  such  as  is  de- 
manded by  the  nature  and  pecuharities  of  the  plant. 
Thorough  and  deep  pulverization  is  desirable  for  all 
kinds  of  plants.  Make  a  good  seed-bed.  It  should  be 
done  long  enough  before  planting  to  allow  for  a  thorough 
settling  of  the  sub-surface  soil,  for  many  crops,  such  as 
wheat,  corn,  and  other  grains,  do  best  on  a  settled  seed- 
bed.   In  planting,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 

I  (129) 


130  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

special  requirements  of  the  crop.  Quick-growing  annuals 
and  root-crops  do  best  on  a  very  loose  seed-bed.  Sugar 
beets  become  fibrous,  and  may  be  pushed  out  of  the 
ground  if  the  roots  reach  a  hard  subsoil.  The  depth  of 
covering  the  seeds  often  has  a  great  influence  not  only 
on  the  promptness  of  germination,  but,  also,  on  the 
fruitfulness  of  the  crop.  The  distance  between  the  seeds 
must  be  such  that  there  is  proper  room  for  the  develop- 
ment to  the  size  desired  at  maturity,  or  for  transplant- 
ing.* 

192.  Propagation  by  Seedage  and  by  Division  Com- 
pared. The  embryos  in  seeds  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  nuclei  of  pollen  and  egg-cells,  each  from  differ- 
ent individuals.  In  division,  the  new  individual  is 
formed  from  a  part  of  the  original  plant,  and,  therefore, 
has  only  the  characters  of  the  original  plant,  that  is,  it 
is  just  like  the  original  plant.  Seed-propagated  plants 
often  partake  of  the  characters  of  two  individuals. 
This  explains  why  seed-propagated  plants  are  more 
variable  than  those  propagated  by  division.  For  illus- 
tration, we  may  use  blackberries.  Fig.  77  shows  the 
forms  of  the  leaves  of  a  number  of  blackberry  plants 
grown  by  Luther  Burbank  from  seeds  of  a  single  plant. 
Not  all  seeds  are  so  variable  as  the  example  given,  but 
they  are,  in  most  cases,  variable,  and  the  differences  are 
only  of  degree.  Therefore,  in  order  to  make  sure  of  propa- 
gating the  desirable  qualities  of  some  particular  indi- 
vidual, resort  is  had  to  propagation  by  division. 

193.  Propagation  by  Division  may  be  by  some  of  the 

*NoTE. — It  is  not  advisable  to  discuss  the  needs  of  particular  crops  in  a 
general  text-book,  but  a  number  of  interesting  comparisons  may  be  made  in 
this  connection  by  comparing  ( 1)  the  season  of  seedage;  (2)  depth  of  planting  and 
size  of  seed;  (3)  how  the  depth  of  planting  affects  the  potato  crop;  (4)  the 
duration  of  the  roots  in  the  soil;  (5)  surface  feeding  and  deep-feeding  or  tap- 
rooted  plants. 


Fig.  77.  Variation  in  leaves  of  hybrid  blackberries,  all  from  the  seed  of  one 
plant.  The  stems  of  the  plants  varied  just  as  much  in  shape,  size  and 
color.  The  parents  of  these  forms  were  Oregon  Evergreen  and  Lawton. 
Many  new  forms  are  produced  in  this  way.  A  thousand  or  more  forms  may 
be  produced  and  discarded  without  finding  even  one  having  real  ment. 
(H  212.)    After  photograph  by  Luther  Burbank. 


132 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


natural  processes,  such  as  mentioned  in  paragraph  190, 
or  by  artificial  processes,  such  as  by  layers  or  buds. 
The  process  of  propagating  by  cuttings  is  known  as 
cutting  propagation.  That  by  layers,  as  layering;  that 
by  inserted  scions,  as  grafting;  and  that  by  inserted 
buds,  as  budding.  They  may  be 
termed  respectively,  cuttage,  lay- 
erage,  graftage,  and  buddage. 

194.  Layerage.  When  a  branch 
or  part  is  caused  to  form  roots,  and 
then  severed  from  the  parent 
plant,  the  plant  produced  is  a 
layer.   Fig.  78  shows  how  a  vine  of 


Fig.  78.     Propagating  grapes  by  layering. 

the  grape  may  be  bent  down,  and  covered  at  inter- 
vals with  moist  soil.  Roots  form  at  the  nodes.  (See 
U  68.)  After  these  roots  are  sufficiently  abundant, 
the  vine  may  be  cut  into  pieces,  each  piece  having 
roots,  and  each  planted  in  a  new  place  as  a  complete 
plant.  Layering  is  used  to  propagate  grapes,  raspberries, 
dewberries,  and  many  other  plants.  Strawberries,  dew- 
berries, blackcap  raspberries,  and  many  grasses,  such 
as  Bermuda  grass,  Johnson  grass,  some  of  the  Musquite 
grasses,  white  clover,  and  some  varieties  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, naturally  multiply  by  their  prostrate  stems,  taking 
root  at  every  node;  and  man,  in  practical  agriculture. 


Propagation  of  Plants 


133 


greatly  aids  it  by  better  preparing  the  soil.  There  are 
many  plants  that  do  not  often  multiply  in  this  way,  but 
will  readily  do  so  if  their  bodies  or  branches  be  bent  down 
to  the  ground  and  covered  with  mellow  soil. 

195.  Cuttage.  Rooted  cuttings  are  parts  of  either 
stems  or  roots  (or  leaves,  in  some  cases),  cut  into  small 
pieces  and  kept  under  proper  conditions  until  the  for- 
mation of  roots 
and  shoots  has 
taken  place.  Cut- 
tings  of  some 
kinds  of  plants 
put  out  roots  very 
readily,  as  willow, 
dogwood,  roses, 
grapes,  some 
kinds  of  plums, 
and  berry  plants. 
Cuttings  may  be 
made  from  dor- 
mant or  green 
growing  shoots.  Geraniums  are  propagated  from  green 
cuttings.  Green  cuttings  should  be  kept  moist  at  all 
times. 

196.  Buddage.  The  callus-tissue  of  one  plant  may 
unite  with  the  callus-tissue  of  another  plant,  if  the  two 
plants  are  of  the  same  kind.  Apple  may  be  made  to 
unite  with  apple;  peach  with  peach;  but  not  peach  with 
apple.  However,  peach  will  unite  with  plum,  because 
peach  and  plum  are  closely  related.  In  budding  we  have 
two  parts:  (1)  A  bud  of  the  kind  or  variety  to  be  propa- 
gated, and  (2)  a  stock.  The  stock  may  be  a  rooted  cutting 
or  a  seedling.    In  the  common  **T"-budding,  a  sharp 


Fig.  79.     Cuttings:  a,  simple  cutting;  b,  heel  cut- 
ting; c,  mallet  cutting;  d,  single-eye  cutting. 


134 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


knife  is  used  to  make  a  "T"-like  slit  through  the  bark^ 
as  shown  in  Fig.  SOD.  The  corners  may  be  raised  and  a 
bud,  cut  as  shown  at  E,  placed  under  the  edges  of  the 
bark  of  the  stock,  as  shown  at  G.  The  cambium  layer 
of  the  bud  is  left  in  contact  with  the  cambium  layer  of 
the  stock.  The  wound  is  wrapped  with  soft  twine,  such 
as  cotton  yarn,  or  other  suitable  material,  to  hold  the 

edges  of  the  bark  down  and 
keep  the  bud  from  drying 
out  as  at  /.  After  a  week  or 
ten  days,  depending  on  the 
condition  of  the  shoot,  the 
bud  will  be  grown  to  the 
stock,  if  the  work  has  been 
properly  done.  In  this  way 
we  may  cause  one  variety  of 
plant  to  unite  with  another. 
Budding  is  easiest  made  and 
most  likely  to  be  success- 
ful if  made  while  the  stock 
is  growing  rapidly,  or  when 
the  bark  "sUps,"  as  it  is 
called. 

197.  Later  Care  of  the 
Bud.  After  the  bud  has 
united  with  the  stock,  there 
is  still  much  to  be  done  before 
we  have  a  new  plant.  The 
strings  are  removed  when  the 
bud  has  united  with  the 
stock.    The  later  condition  is 

„  '  •^.         shown   by  the  bud   remain- 

Fig  80.    Steps  m  propagating        . 

plants  by  budding  mg  green  and  plump.    After 


Propagation  of  Plants  135 

a  week  to  ten  days,  or  when  the  string  begins  to  be  over- 
grown, it  should  be  cut  and  removed.  The  next  step 
is  to  force  the  bud  into  growth.  This  may  be  done  im- 
mediately, as  in  ''force  budding,"  or  left  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  when  the  top  of  the  stock  is  cut  off  just 
above  the  inserted  bud.  This  causes  all  the  buds  below 
to  swell  and  many  to  form  shoots.  All  the  new  sprouts 
except  the  one  from  the  inserted  bud  should  be  rubbed 
off  when  they  attain  three  to  five  inches  in  length.  This 
causes  the  new  shoot  to  grow  very  rapidly.  Many  per- 
sons leave  a  foot  of  stock  stem  to  protect  the  young 
shoot.  As  soon  as  the  latter  is  thoroughly  established, 
the  stock  is  pruned  close  down,  as  shown  in  Fig.  80J. 
The  final  result  is  that  we  have  a  stem  of  one  variety 
growing  on  a  common  seedling  stock.  One  may  prop- 
agate millions  of  Elberta,  or  other  variety  of  peach 
trees  in  this  way,  and  every  tree  will  bear  peaches  just 
like  the  parent  variety.  The  great  value  of  propaga- 
tion by  budding  is  obvious.  Choice  varieties  of  peaches, 
plums  and  apricots  are  propagated  by  budding.  It  is 
often  used  for  pears,  apples,  roses,  and  many  other 
kinds  of  plants.  Special  methods  of  budding  are  used  for 
pecans  and  other  hardwood  trees. 

198.  Graftage.  In  propagation  by  grafting,  two  parts 
are  used,  as  in  budding.  One  we  call  a  stock,  or  root,  and 
the  other  the  scion,  the  latter  coming  from  the  plant  to 
be  propagated.  The  scion  usually  consists  of  a  short 
piece  of  stem.  In  making  the  cleft-graft,  the  stock  is 
split  open  smoothly,  as  shown  in  Fig.  81  A.  The  lower 
end  of  the  scion  having  been  trimmed  to  a  wedge  is 
inserted  as  shown  at  A.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that  the  cambium  layer  of  stock  and  scion  coincide, 
at  least  on  one  side.  (Fig.  SIC.)  The  graft  is  now  wrapped 


k 


136    '        Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


with  waxed  cloth  to  prevent  drying  out.  The  two  layers 
of  cambium  grow  and  unite,  and  the  scion  grows  out  into 
a  vigorous  shoot.    Cleft-grafting  is  used  in  propagating 


Fig.  81.     Steps  in  propagating  by  graftage.   A,  B,  and  C,  details  of  cleft  graft; 
D,  same  for  tongue  graft. 

many  kinds  of  plants,  such  as  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
etc.  If  the  graft  is  made  below  the  ground  on  a  rooted 
stock  it  is  not  necessary  to  wrap  with  waxed  cloth.  The 
moist  soil,  pressed  firmly  about  the  union,  prevents 
drying  out. 

199.  In  Tongue  Grafting,  we  make  a  sloping  cut  on 
both  scion  and  stock.  (Fig.  SID.)  The  tongue  of  one 
is  slipped  into  the  cleft  of  the  other,  care  being  taken 
to  have  the  cambium  layers  together,  at  least  on  one 
side.  In  piece-root  grafting,  as  is  usual  with  pears  and 
apples,  the  graft  is  wrapped  to  secure  the  two  pieces  in 
an  unmovable  union  until  the  callus  growth  has  had 
time  to  unite.  They  may  be  prevented  from  drying  out 
by  storing  in  moist  sand  or  sawdust.  It  is  usual  to  make 
the  grafts  during  the  winter  months  and  plant  them  in 
the  nursery  rows  early  in  the  spring.    (Fig.  82.) 


Propagation  of  Plants 


137 


200.  Care  of  Buds  and  Grafts.  There  are  many  special 
ways  of  budding  and  grafting.  All  depend  on  the  prop- 
erty of  callus-tissue  of  two  different  plants  to  form  a  close 
living  union.  In  making  the  cuts,  nothing  but  the 
sharpest  of  knives  should  be  used.  Dull  knives  produce 
such  mutilation  that  the  cambium  does  not  grow  out 
and  form  the  callus-tissue  promptly,  and,  as  a  result, 
the  graft  or  bud  fails  ''to  take."  The  dormant  buds 
on  the  stock  are  inclined  to  form  vigorous-growing 
sprouts,  but  should  be  rubbed  off  as  explained  in  %  197. 

201.  Transplanting  Nursery  Trees.  Nursery  trees, 
whether  propagated  from  seeds,  cuttings,  buds,  or 
grafts,  are  removed  from  the  nursery  rows  and  trans- 


-<::;: 


^^2^ 

1*K 

<i|i 

m, 

Fig.  82.     Grafted  cuttings  set  in  nursery  row. 


138   '        Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

planted  in  orchards.  In  removing  nursery  stock, 
many  of  the  roots  are  necessarily  cut  short.  In  trans- 
planting, the  ends  of  all  bruised  or  mutilated  roots  should 
be  cut  off  smoothly  and  the  top  cut  back  to  keep  it  in 
balance  with  the  roots.  Fig.  63  shows  a  one-year-old 
budded  peach  tree  trimmed  ready  for  transplanting. 
The  young  trees  should  be  put  into  good-sized  holes  and 
loose,  moist  soil  worked  in  around  the  roots,  and  tramped 
just  sufficiently  to  hold  the  young  tree  in  position.  In 
transporting  nursery  stock,  the  roots  should  never  be 
allowed  to  become  dry.  When  trees  are  received  from 
the  nursery  they  should  be  set  in  trenches  and  dirt 
thrown  over  the  roots.  If  the  soil  is  not  moist  it  will  be 
well  to  apply  water  freely. 

It  will  usually  be  much  better  if  young  orchard  trees 
are  set  in  the  place  they  are  to  grow  in  the  fall  months. 
They  will  thus  have  plenty  of  time  to  form  new  roots. 
Fall-planted  trees  usually  put  out  their  leaves  earlier 
in  the  spring  than  trees  planted  in  late  winter.  Young 
orchard  trees  should  be  especially  well  cared  for  during 
the  first  season  after  transplanting.    (See  H  61.) 


CHAPTER  XX 


IMPROVING  PLANTS  AND   SEEDS 


202.  Domesticated  Plants.  The  cultivated  plants 
were  originally  wild  sorts.  Some  of  them  have  been 
cultivated  so  long  and  so  improved  by  man's  care  that 
the  original  or  wild  form  is  not  certainly  recognized,  such 
as  wheat,  potato,  onion,  cabbage,  etc.  Other  sorts  have 
been  brought  into  cultivation  in  comparatively  recent 
times,  and  the  original  wild  form  is  well  known,  as  the 
tomato,  carrot,  chrysanthemum.  Cultivated  forms  are 
vastly  superior  to  the  wild  forms.  The  strawberries  of 
our  gardens  are  more  palatable  and  productive  than  the 
wild  sorts.  The  cultivated  tomato  is  much  larger  and 
firmer  than  the  original  wild  form.  Wherever  a  plant 
has  been  long  under  cultivation  it  has  been  greatly 
modified.  We  may  ask,  ''How  are  these  improvements 
secured?" 

203.  Variation  in  Plants  is  the  starting  point  for 
improvement.  Scientists  have  a  theory  that  all  the 
plant  and  animal  forms  de- 
scended from  some  common 
ancestor.  This  theory  of  the 
origin  of  living  forms,  called  the 
"theory  of  evolution,"  finds  its 
support  in  the  similarity  of 
many  forms,  suggesting  rela- 
tionship, and  the  further  fact 
that,   through   natural    varia-    „.    „„   ^,^ ,. 

'  °  Fig.  83.   Old-time  and  new-time 

tion,    new   forms   are   constantly      forms  of  tomato.  After  BaUey. 

(139) 


140 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


coming   into    existence.     Plant -breeders    try  to    cause 
variations. 

204.  Fixing  Variations.  Variations  in  cultivated 
plants  more  often  resemble  earlier  and  less  valuable 
forms.  Where  improvement  is  desired,  great  numbers  of 
individuals  should  be  observed  and  a  few  of  the  most 
promising  saved  for  seed.  This  is  called  selection.  When 
seeds  are  saved  from  individual  plants  with  desirable 


Fig.  84.  A  chance  for  selection.  The  two  kernels  in  the  center  are  the  best 
The  two  outside  grains  at  each  end  of  the  upper  row  are  too  short.  The 
two  outside  ones  in  the  lower  row  are  too  pointed  at  the  tip,  showing  lack 
of  vitality. 

characters,  they  should  be  planted  away  from  other 
plants  of  the  same  kind.  Usually,  only  a  few  specimens 
of  the  progeny  will  retain  the  good  qualities  of  the 
parent.  Selections  should  again  be  made.  By  repeated 
selection,  a  large  per  cent  may  be  made  to  ''come  true 
to  seed."  This  is  called  ''fixing  the  type."  Where  the 
crop  is  grown  for  seed,  the  field  should  be  gone  over  and 
all  plants  that  are  noticeably  inferior  or  not  true  to  type 
should  be  removed.  .  This  is  what  the  seed-grower  calls 
"rogueing." 


Improving  Plants  and  Seeds  141 

205.  "Natural  Selection."  The  original  wild  species 
owe  their  form  and  habits  to  the  continuous  selections 
which  wild  nature  makes.  Wild  plants  must  grow  in 
competition  with  other  plants  and  struggle  with  them 
for  the  conditions  necessary  for  growth  and  the  preser- 
vation of  their  seeds.  The  size,  form  and  character  of 
the  leaves,  stems,  flowers,  fruits  and  seeds,  are  all  im- 
portant features  in  the  struggles  for  nature's  favors. 

206.  No  Improvement  Without  Variation.  No  two 
plants  are  exactly  alike.  The  offspring  from  the  same 
individual  are  not  alike.  This  is  the  fact  of  ^'variation." 
In  some  forms  the  variations  are  more  obvious  than  in 
others.  As  a  rule,  variations  in  wild  plants  are  less  fre- 
quent than  in  cultivated  forms.  Variations  may  be 
desirable  or  undesirable  and  progress  comes  from  propa- 
gating only  the  best  selections.  Improvements  could  not 
be  made  if  all  individuals  were  alike. 

207.  Variations  Are  Not  Permanent.  The  Concord 
grape  is  a  variation  of  the  wild  fox  grape  of  Massachu- 
setts, discovered  by  E.  W.  Bull  about  1850.  It  has 
been  propagated  by  division  ever  since  and  is  still  the 
same  grape,  because  our  Concord  grape-vines  of  today 
are  only  parts  of  the  original  plant.  However,  when  the 
seeds  of  Concord  grapes  are  grown,  we  get  the  original 
wild  fox  grapes.  Many  such  seedlings  have  been  grown, 
but  none  have  yet  been  secured  that  are  the  same  as  the 
parent  vine,  although  some  of  them  are  very  nearly  Uke 
it.  DeVries  had  a  variety  of  corn,  the  ears  of  which  had 
eight  to  twenty-two  rows  of  grains.  The  average  num- 
ber of  rows  was  between  twelve  and  fourteen.  He 
planted  an  ear  having  sixteen  rows  and  found  the  aver- 
age in  the  crop  to  be  fifteen  rows  per  ear.  He  then  planted 
some  ears  having  twenty  rows  and  continued  this  for 


142''  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

six  generations.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  average  of 
the  variety  was  twenty  rows,  whereas  it  had  originally 
been  only  thirteen.  The  lowest  number  of  rows  on  any 
ear  was  twelve  and  the  highest  twenty-eight,  a  number 
that  had  never  been  observed  in  the  parent  variety. 
The  average  and  the  actual  number  of  rows  had  been 
greatly  increased  by  continuous  selection  through  six 
years;  yet,  when  left  for  three  years  without  selec- 
tion, the  average  number  of  rows  was  back  to  thirteen. 
Other  instances  might  be  mentioned,  showing  the  in- 
constancy of  varieties  propagated  from  seed. 

208.  Perpetuating  Desirable  Variations.  How  may  a 
desirable  variation  be  perpetuated?  There  are  two  ways: 
(a)  Propagating  the  Plant  by  Division,  (b)  By  Repeated 
Selection  toward  an  Ideal  Type.  Many  kinds  of  plants  are 
more  conveniently  propagated  from  seed,  such  as  the 
grains,  cotton,  garden  vegetables,  and  the  like.  We  have 
seen  how  the  number  of  rows  of  grains  on  an  ear  of  corn 
was  increased.  Had  the  selections  been  continued  for 
ten  or  more  years,  the  new  characters  would  have  been 
more  fixed. 

(c)  Special  Methods.  In  addition  to  continual  selec- 
tion, plant-breeders  sometimes  resort  to  inbreeding  to 
fix  variations.  Plants  that  normally  inbreed,  like  oats, 
wheat,  cotton,  and  others,  are  much  less  variable  than 
kinds  that  are  normally  cross-fertilized,  as  corn. 

209.  How  to  Stimulate  Variation.  While  seed-propa- 
gated plants  are  variable,  in  fact  too  much  so  for  the 
average  grower,  the  plant-breeder  desires  to  bring  about 
the  most  decided  variations  possible  in  the  hope  that 
some  form  of  unusual  value  may  be  secured.  The  means 
usually  relied  upon  are: 

(a)  Intensive  Culture.    Plants  grown  under  the  most 


Improving  Plants  and  Seeds  143 

favorable  conditions  are  thought  to  produce  a  more 
variable  offspring  than  wild  or  uncultivated  plants. 

(b)  By  Hybridizing  Dissimilar.  Forms,  such  as  dif- 
ferent varieties,  or  species.  Many  valuable  varieties  of 
fruits  have  been  secured  by  cross-fertiUzing  individuals 
belonging  to  two  different  species. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  variations  in  hybrid 
blackberries  (t  192).  As  a  rule,  the  more  dissimilar  the 
parents,  the  greater  are  the  variations  in  the  seedlings. 
In  choosing  parents  for  hybrids,  it  is  well  to  consider  the 
characters  of  each;  for  it  is  possible,  though  often  quite 
difficult;  to  combine  the  good  qualities  of  two  forms  in 
a  single  individual. 

210.  Some  Notable  Results.  Professor  Munson  found 
that  the  varieties  of  the  wine  grapes,  grown  with  such 
success  in  Europe,  and  the  fox  grapes,  in  the  eastern 
United  States,  were  not  suited  to  the  cUmate  of  the 
Southwest.  He  sought  to  combine  the  hardiness  of  the 
native  wild  grapes  of  Texas  with  the  fine  flavor  and 
fruitfulness  of  the  foreign  species  by  hybridizing.  Many 
valuable  varieties  of  grapes  well  suited  to  Texas  con- 
ditions have  been  produced  in  this  way.  Some  of  the 
most  popular  are  the  Carman,  Fern,  Muench,  and 
America,  each  having  one-half  of  the  native  Post-oak 
grape  blood.  ,The  Kieffer  pear  is  a  hybrid  between  the 
Bartlett  and  Chinese  Sand  pears.  The  Bartlett  pear  has 
a  delightful  flavor  but  often  suffers  from  blight.  The 
Sand  pears  are  poor  in  flavor  but  quite  hardy  and  fruit- 
ful. Many  fine  varieties  of  plums,  blackberries  and  dew- 
berries have  been  produced  by  hybridization. 

211.  Hybridization  is  accompHshed  by  placing  the 
pollen  of  one  variety  or  species  upon  the  stigma  of 
another.   To  prevent  self-pollination,  the  anthers  should 


144 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


be  removed  before  the  pollen  is  mature.  (Fig.  85.)  In 
the  flowers  of  wheat,  oats,  peas,  and  some  grapes,  polli- 
nation takes  place  before  the  flowers  open;  hence,  in  such 
plants  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  anthers  very  early. 


Hkij^l^ 


Fig.  85.  Buds  or  "squares"  of  cotton.  1.  Flower-bud  nearly  ready  to  open; 
2,  parts  removed  to  expose  the  stamens;  3,  stamens  removed  to  prevent 
self-pollination.    After  Hartley,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

After  the  anthers  have  been  removed,  the  stigma  should 
be  protected  from  chance-flying  pollen  by  covering  the 
flower  with  a  paper  bag.  The  sack  may  be  removed 
when  the  pollen  is  to  be  placed  on  the  stigma.  The  latter 
may  be  accomplished  by  a  clean,  moistened  finger, 
camel's-hair  brush,  or  other  means  suited  to  the  plants 
in  hand.  For  success  in  artificial  cross-pollination,  one 
should  fully  understand  the  structure  and  habits  of 
flowers  in  both  parents. 

212.  The  Hybrid  Seedlings.  The  seedlings  from  hybrid 
seed  should  be  closely  observed.  Out  of  a  great  number 
of  individuals,  only  a  few,  possibly  none,  will  possess  the 
desired  characters.  Even  though  none  are  found,  it  is 
often  desirable  to  grow  their  seed  in  the  same  way  for  the 
desired  form  may  appear  in   the    second   generation. 


Improving  Plants  and  Seeds 


145 


When  a  specimen  is  found  having  merit,  it  should  be 
given  special  care  and  properly  r^ropagated  (1|  20S). 
When  a  new  form  is  secured  and  has  its  characters  so 
fixed  until  they  ''come  true,"  it  is  caLed  a  variety. 

213.  Examples  of  the  Value  of  New  Varieties.  The 
improvement  of  our  cultivated  plants  has  been  gradual 
because  but  few  men  have  made  it  a  business  to  look 
for  and  select  out  the  best  forms.  Many  men,  however, 
have  secured  decided  results  in  a  few  years  by  following 
scientific  methods.  The  work  of  Professor  Munson  has 
already  been  mentioned.  Hays  was  able  to  secure  a 
strain  of  Minnesota  blue-stem  wheat  that  produced 
five  bushels  more  per  acre.  When  wheat  is  worth  80 
cents,  such  seed  represents  a  superior  earning  value  of 
$4  per  acre.    Many  other  examples  of  the  great  value 


Taylor 


Iron 


Black 


Fig.  86.  Iron  cowpea  vs.  Black  and  Taylor,  showing  comparative  resistance  to 
the  Wilt  and  Root  Knot.  From  Bulletin  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 


146  *"         Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

of  propagating  seed  from  desirable  individuals  might 
be  given.  The  old  varieties  have,  in  many  cases,  been 
crowded  out  by  the  introduction  of  new  and  better 
forms.  Special  attention  should  be  called  to  the  Elberta 
peach;  many  excellent  varieties  of  grapes,  Austin  dew- 
berry, Gonzales  and  other  varieties  of  plums.  Triumph 
cotton,  and  other  forms  that  have  added  immensely 
to  the  value  of  the  harvests  of  the  world's  staples.  A 
variety  of  the  cowpea  has  been  discovered  that  is  not 
only  resistant  to  ''wilt,"  but  to  the  little  worm  which 
causes  the  formation  of  knots  on  the  roots  of  other 
varieties.       (Fig.  86.) 

213a.  Selecting  Seed  Oats.*  Suppose  that  it  is  desired  to  im- 
prove the  quality  and  yielding  power  of  oats.  The  first  question 
to  be  answered  is,  ''What  quality  has  the  oat  that  makes  it  valued? 
For  what  may  the  oat  plant  be  used,  and  what  does  it  supply?" 
In  the  South  it  is  sown  in  the  fall  and  the  field  is  used  for  wintor 
grazing.  It  makes  a  crop  of  grain  which  is  thrashed  and  the  straw 
and  the  grain  are  both  used.  The  grain  has  most  value  so  that  in 
selecting  oats  we  usually  select  for  fine  grain. 

Next  let  us  find  out  what  an  oat  gram  is.  If  we  carefully  hull 
an  oat  grain  we  find  a  hull  composed  of  two  or  more  pieces,  and  a 
true  seed  If  we  examine  a  number  of  large  grains  we  shall  find  that 
the  large  grain  usually  has  a  large  seed.  In  selecting  the  seed  then 
we  will  select  the  large  grain.  Now  secure  a  bundle  of  oats  harvested 
and  bound  just  as  they  come  from  the  fields.  Let  each  student  take 
a  dozen  heads  as  they  come,  spread  them  out  on  a  table  and  note 

*The  foregoing  outline  of  the  process  of  selecting  seed  oats  and  suggestions 
for  testing  the  qualities  in  the  plants  of  the  progeny  are  given  merely  to  illus- 
trate the  more  fundamental  problems  of  seed  improvement,  and  the  common 
crops  or  garden  plants,  lliey  may  be  carried  out  by  any  energetic  boy  or  girl 
in  a  comer  of  the  garden  with  noticeable  results  in  improving  the  plants.  As  an 
exercise  for  training  the  mind  in  observation,  comparison,  discrimination,  and 
test  of  ideas,  it  will  prove  highly  satisfactory  to  the  teacher  from  the  viewpoint 
of  culture  training  as  well  as  a  practical  study  in  "the  relation  values."  Oats 
have  been  selected  because  they  may  be  grown  and  matured  during  the  school 
year.  Local  conditions  may  suee:'=-'5t  other  material.  Some  consideration  should 
be  given  to  the  more  important  crops  of  the  community,  such  as  com,  cotton, 
kafir  corn,  sugar-cane,  rice,  and  the  various  kinds  of  fruits. 


Improving  Plants  and  Seeds  147 

the  differences  in  the  heads.  Now  thresh  out  each  head  separately 
and  put  the  grains  from  each  head  in  a  small  bottle.  Note  differ- 
ences in  color,  size,  shape,  etc.  What  sorts  do  you  consider  the 
best  oats?  Why?  Save  the  best  four  and  take  home  and  plant  one 
seed  at  a  time  in  drills  one  foot  apart,  and  one  foot  in  the  drill. 
Plant  seeds  from  each  head  separately,  so  that  if  they  grow  differ- 
ently it  may  be  noticed.  Compare  the  quality  of  the  crop  from  the 
four  different  heads.  If  the  school  has  a  school  garden  they  may 
be  planted  there. 

214.  Effect  of  Cultivation.  Cultivated  plants  are 
shielded  from  competition  with  other  plants;  they  are 
planted  in  prepared  ground,  given  plenty  of  space,  and 
protected  from  many  destructive  agencies;  their  seeds 
are  harvested,  stored,  and  throughout  the  life  of  the 
plant  they  are  given  favorable  opportunity  to  make 
vigorous  growth.  Cultivated  plants  are  selected,  not 
for  their  ability  to  propagate  under  unfavorable  con- 
ditions, but  because  of  their  power  to  grow  and  fruit 
under  favorable  conditions.  Wild  plants  do  better  under 
cultivation,  but  not  in  the  same  degree  that  improved 
varieties  do.  In  selecting  seeds  for  propagation,  prefer- 
ence should  be  given  to  the  forms  which  show  the 
greatest  yield  under  favorable  but  practical  conditions. 
The  local  conditions,  whether  due  to  peculiarities  of 
climate  or  conditions  produced  by  culture,  often  affect 
the  result  quite  as  much,  possibly  more,  than  the  kind 
of  seed.  A  variety  may  yield  very  satisfactory  harvests 
in  one  place,  and  yet  be  quite  unsuited  to  other  locali- 
ties or  uses.  It  has  been  found  to  be  quite  generally 
true  that  when  equal  care  is  given  to  seed  selection 
home-grown  seeds  are  better  yielders. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


FUNGUS  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 


215.  Many  plants  of  the  farm  and  garden  are  subject 
to  attack  by  various  kinds  of  minute  plants,  known  as 
fungi.  The  "rusts"  of  small  grains,  plum  trees  and  cot- 
ton, are  familiar  examples.  Also,  the  "mildew"  of  grapes 
and  roses.  These  fungi  are  thread-like  plants.  Some 
form  their  thread-like  bodies  inside  of  the  plant  tissues, 
such  as  the  "smuts"  and  "rusts."  (Fig.  87.)  Other 
forms,  like  the  mildew,   grow   on  the  surface  of   the 

leaves  and  stems,  but 
send  little  root -like 
branches  (Fig.  89)  into 
the  plant  tissue  to 
absorb  its  substance. 
Another  class  of  fungi, 
known  as  bacteria, 
never  form  "threads," 
or  hyphce,  as  they  are 
called  by  the  botanist, 
but  only  cells.  Some 
species  of  bacteria  cause 
disease.  The  cells  are 
formed  inside  of  the 
plant  body. 

216.  How  Fungus 
Plants  Get  Their  Food. 
Fungi  do  not  have  the 
green  chlorophyl  (f  48), 


Fig.  87.   A,  head  of  oats  afifected  with  smut, 
the  chaff  being  only  partially  destroyed; 

B,  head  of  oats   decidedly  smutty,   but 
having  the  chaff  only  partially  destroyed; 

C,  final  stage  of  oat  smut,  showing  con- 


dition at  harvest  time 


(148) 


Fungus  Diseases  of  Plants 


149 


and,  therefore,  can  not  make  their  food  like  the  algae  and 
the  higher  green  plants.  They  are  called  dependent  plants. 
There  are  many  kinds.  Plants  like  the  fungi  are  thought 
by  scientists  to  be  greatly  changed  algae  that  have  lost 


Fig.  88.  Spores,  or  seeds,  of  the  fungus  producing  the  "rust"  of  wheat.  A, 
summer  spores,  or  "red  rust"  stage;  B,  same  germinating  on  surface  of 
leaf;  C,  autumn  spores,  or  "black  rust"  stage.    Greatly  magnified. 

the  power  of  carbon  assimilation,  and  are,  therefore, 
dependent  on  host  plants  to  supply  the  food  they  need. 
They  are  called  independent  plants.  Many  higher 
plants  are  dependent  in  the  same  way,  such  as  the 
dodder,  or  *'love  vine."  They  grow  under  many  con- 
ditions, but  all  must  get  their  food  from  plant  or  animal 
substance.  Species  that  get  their  food  from  living  plants 
or  animals  are  called  parasites.  Those  that  get  their 
food  from  dead  plant  or  animal  remains  are  called 
saprophytes.  Some  species  of  fungi  may  get  their  food 
from  either  living  or  dead  organisms.  The  red  or  black 
powdery  mass  which  we  call  "rust"  is  only  a  mass  of 
spores  (one-celled  seeds)  of  the  fungus  causing  the 
disease.  The  body  of  the  plant  exists  as  a  lot  of  threads 
inside  of  the  host-plant  and  is  not  visible  to  the  eye. 
When  magnified  by  the  microscope,  these  fine  hyphae 
may  be  plainly  seen. 


I 


150 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


217.  How  Fungi 
Propagate.  Fungi  prop- 
agate by  minute  cells, 
called  spores.  They  cor- 
respond to  seeds  of 
higher  plants.  They 
require  the  same  con- 
ditions   for    germina- 

Fig.  89.   Germinating  spores  of  the  "Potato  tion    aS    Seeds.     Fig.   89 

Blight"  fungus.  Cross  section  through  a  ■, „^^„^     ^c    +u^ 

portion    of    a    stalk.     Two    germinating  ShOWS     a    SpOre     01     the 

spores  (a,  6)  piercing  the  epidermis,  and  _^x^4.^uk„U^  ^^^.^:^.^4- 

the  threads  penetrating  the  cells  of  the  potatO  blight  germmat- 

leaf .    Highly  magnified:  j^^  ^^  ^  j^^j ^    rj.^^  ^^^^ 

thread  soon  enters  the  plant  and  absorbs  the  moisture 
and  food  substance  of  the  potato  leaf.  It  soon  forms  a 
crop  of  spores,  sometimes  in  only  a  few  days.  These 
spores  are  blown  to  other 
plants,  and  soon  a  whole 
field  will  be  blighted  by  the 
fungus.  Most  species  of  fungi 
grow  on  only  one  kind  of 
plant.  The  fungus  that 
causes  grape  mildew  (Fig. 
90)  does  not  grow  on  any 
other  kind  of  plants  but 
grapes.  The  fungus  that 
causes  the  blasting  of  the 
ears  and  tassels  of  corn 
(corn  smut)  grows  only  on 
corn.  The  fungus  that  causes 
the  smut  of  oats  never  at- 
tacks corn.  However,  the 
fungus  that  produces  the 
rust  on  grains  also  attacks         uum.  After  MiUardet. 


Fig.  90.  Downy  mildew  of  grape 
(Plasmopora  viticola),  showing 
tuft  of  gonidiophores  bearing 
nidia,  also  intercellular  myce- 


Fungus  Diseases  of  Plants  151 

barberry  bushes.  A  number  of  fungi  known  as  "rusts" 
have  more  than  one  host-plant.  The  yellow  rust  of 
apple  leaves  is  the  same  fungus  that  produces  the  so- 
called  cedar  apples  on  cedar  trees. 

218.  Not  All  Fungi  Cause  Disease.  Some  fungi  are  very 
useful,  like  the  little  bacteria  that  gather  the  free  nitro- 
gen of  the  air  for  beans  and  clover  plants;  the  yeast, 
used  in  making  bread,  and  in  making  wines  and  beers. 
Some  fungi  are  quite  large,  as  the  mushrooms  and  puff- 
balls.  Certain  kinds  are  highly  esteemed  as  table  deli- 
cacies, and  are  cultivated.  Some  species  of  mushrooms 
should  not  be  eaten  because  they  are  poisonous. 

219.  Preventing  Fungus  Diseases.  There  is  no  cure 
for  the  fungus  diseases  in  plants.  Prevention  is  the  only 
safeguard  against  loss  from  parasitic  fungi.  This  is 
accomplished  in  four  ways: 

(a)  Treating  the  Seeds  with  substances  that  destroy 
the  disease-causing  germs,  as  scab  in  potatoes,  smut  in 
oats  and  wheat. 

(b)  Using  Resistant  Varieties.  Not  all  plants  are 
equally  subject  to  the  attacks  of  parasitic  fungi.  Some 
varieties  are  much  less  injured  than  others.  (Fig.  86.) 
Many  varieties  of  cultivated  plants  owe  their  value  to 
their  power  to  resist  disease. 

(c)  Sanitation,  When  crops  are  subject  to  a  particu- 
lar disease,  all  the  dead  parts,  trash  and  litter  that 
harbor  the  spores,  should  be  gathered  up  and  burned. 

(d)  By  Using  Fungicides.  Fungi  are  poisoned  by  ex- 
tremely small  amounts  of  copper  salts,  or  sulphur  in 
some  cases,  while  green  plants  are  not  affected  by  small 
amounts.  Preparations  of  copper  salts  in  water  are, 
therefore,  used  to  spray  plants  to  protect  them  from 
attacks  of  fungi.   A  compound  of  copper  sulphate  (blue 


152!'  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


Fig. 91.  The  "brown  rot"  of  plums  and 
peaches  leaves  "mummies"  on  the 
trees. 


Fig.  92.  Black  rot  of  grape  may  be  pre- 
vented by  timely  use  of  Bordeaux 
mixture. 


vitriol)  known  as  Bor- 
deaux mixture  (given  in 
the  Appendix)  is  most 
often  used.  The  plants  are 
sprayed  with  a  very  dilute 
solution,  so  that  a  thin 
film  of  the  poison  covers 
the  leaves,  stems,  buds, 
and  fruit  of  the  plant. 
Spores  on  the  surface  of 
thoroughly  sprayed  plants 
are  killed,  as  likewise 
others  that  fall  on  the 
plants.  It  is  often  neces- 
sary to  make  several  ap- 
plications, to  replace  the 
film  of  spray  washed 
away  by  rains.  Sulphur, 
formaldehyde,  and  other 
substances,  are  used  for 
special  diseases. 

220.  General  Methods 
in  Using  Sprays.  Where 
efforts  are  made  to  pre- 
vent the  attacks  of  fungi 
by  sprays,  it  is  important 
to  know  how  and  when 
infection  takes  place.  No 
general  rules  can  be  given. 
The  time  and  manner  of 
applying  the  fungicide 
must  be  suited  to  the 
conditions  peculiar  to  the 


Fungus  Diseases  of  Plants  153 

disease.  The  agricultural  experiment  station  bulletins 
and  special  books  on  spraying  will  supply  full  informa- 
tion. 

221.  Diseases  of  Orchard  Fruits,  such  as  brown  rot  of 
peaches  and  plums  (Fig.  91);  mildew  and  black-rot  of 
grapes  (Fig.  92)  and  other  common  diseases  are  con- 
trolled by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture.    The  first 


Fig.  93.   The  apple  scab  may  be  prevented  by  spraying. 
From  Cornell  University  Junior  Naturalist. 

spraying  should  be  before  the  buds  swell,  and  repeated 
every  few  weeks  thereafter  until  the  crop  is  safe. 

222.  Grain  Smuts.  The  smuts  of  oats  and  wheat 
(Fig.  87)  may  be  prevented  by  treating  the  seed  before 
planting.  The  spores  become  lodged  on  the  grain  on  the 
hull  or  fine  hairs.  When  the  seeds  are  planted^  the  spores 
germinate  with  the  seed.  It  is  peculiar,  but  true,  that 
this  fungus  can  infect  the  plant  only  in  the  seedling 
stage.  Therefore,  it  is  plain  that,  to  prevent  the  blasting 
of  the  oats  by  smut,  we  must  destroy  the  smut 
spores  on  the  seed  before  planting.  This  may  be  done 
without  injury  to  the  grain  by  treating  the  seeds  with 


154  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

dilute    solutions    of     formaldehyde,    or    other     prepar- 
ations. 

222a.  Preventing  Smuts  in  Grain  Crops.  Full  directions  for 
treating  small  grains  to  prevent  smut  may  be  obtained  from 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  507,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  or 
other  bulletins  from  your  State  Experiment  Station.  Other 
bulletins  give  information  on  the  control  of  smut  of  sorghum  and 
other  crops.  Every  class  in  agriculture  should  make  tests  on  smut 
prevention. 

223.  Potato  Scab  may  be  prevented  by  soaking  the 
seed  potatoes  in  a  two-  or  three-per-cent  solution  of 
formaldehyde  for  one  or  two  hours.  This  destroys  the 
fungus  in  the  scabs  and  cracks  on  the  potatoes. 

224.  Cotton-root  Rot  is  a  serious  disease  of  cotton  on 
heavy  clay  lands.  The  disease  does  not  attack  cotton  on 
loose,  sandy  soils.  This  fact  has  suggested  the  practice 
of  early  and  deep  breaking  of  land  to  prevent  the  growth 
of  the  fungus.  Results  are  favorable  to  the  practice. 
Rotation  is  also  a  means  of  holding  this  disease  under 
control.  The  destructive  effects  of  the  cotton-root-rot 
fungus  is  often  confused  with  damage  due  to  alkali.  The 
soft,  spongy  condition  of  the  roots  of  plants  killed  by 
this  fungus  is  very  characteristic.  This  fungus  also 
attacks  okra,  orchard  trees,  shade  trees,  etc.,  in  fact 
nearly  all  classes  of  plants  except  members  of  the  grass 
family,  such  as  corn,  small  grains,  sorghum,  etc.  It  is 
plain  therefore  that,  if  such  plants  as  the  small  grains, 
corn,  etc.,  are  grown  on  the  land,  the  fungus  will  be 
starved  out,  so  that  cotton  or  other  susceptible  plants 
may  be  again  grown.  It  is  important  that  weeds  that 
might  harbor  the  fungus  should  be  destroyed.  Fields 
will  rarely  become  seriously  infested  with  this  fungus  if 
proper  rotations  are  made.  No  variety  of  cotton  has  yet 
been  discovered  that  resists  the  attacks  of  this  fungus. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


INSECTS  ON  THE  FARM 


225.  There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  insects  found 
on  the  farm,  many  of  them  useful,  while  other  kinds  are 
injurious  because  they  feed  on  plants,  stored  products, 
and  domestic  animals,  according  to  the  habits  of  the 
pest  in  each  case,  and  even  our  own  comfort  and  health 
are  affected  by  various  forms  of  these  creatures.  Not  all 
the  small  animals  are  properly  called  insects.  Insects  have 
just  six  legs,  and  their  bodies  are  made  up  of  three  parts 
that  may  be  easily  distinguished:  First,  the  head;  second, 
the  thorax,  or  middle  part;  and  third,  the  abdomen.  The 
spiders,  ticks,  mites  and  scorpions  have  eight  legs  and 
never  have  wings. 
The  common  sow- 
bug  has  fourteen 
legs  and  is  classed 
with  the  crabs  and 
craw-fish  rather 
than  true  insects. 

226.  Changes  of 
Form  in  the  Growth 
of  Insects.  Nearly 
all  species  of  in- 
sects have  four 
forms  in  passing 
from  the  egg  to  the 

mature    insect       It      •^'®'  ^^'    ^^^ses  in  the  life  history  of  the  June- 
'  bug.    After  Howard  Division  of  Entomology, 

IS  like  the  story  of  United  states  Department  of  Agriculture. 

(155) 


156 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


*'The  House  that  Jack  Built."  The  female  lays  the  egg; 
the  egg  hatches  into  the  larva  (caterpillar,  grub,  or  mag- 
got) ;  the  larva  feeds  and  grows  and  turns  into  a  chrysaHs, 
or  pupa,  and  from  this  pupa  comes  the  adult  insect. 
Take  the  common  May-beetle,  or  June-bug  as  an  ex- 
ample. (Fig.  94.)  The  adult  lays  the  egg  among  grass 
roots  during  spring  or  summer.  From  this  then  hatches 
a  small  larva  (white  grub,  or  ''grub-worm"),  which  feeds 
on  the  roots  in  the  soil.  It  grows  rapidly,  and,  at  the 
end  of  the  second  season,  goes  into  a  dormant  state  and 
changes  into  a  pupa,  and,  at  the  end  of  two  years,  emerges 
from  the  ground  as  a  May-beetle,  or  June-bug.  In  the 
larval  stage,  the  June-bug  often  does  much  damage  to 
the  roots  of  grasses,  corn,  wheat  and  garden  plants, 
while  the  adult  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  trees — often  fruit 
trees. 

The  caterpillar  stage  in  insect  development  is  quite 


Fig.  95.  Plum  curculio.  .4,  larva  inside  of  peach;    B,  mature  insect  depositing 
egg.    After  Quaintance,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Insects  on  the  Farm  157 

unlike  the  mature  butterfly  stage.  Again,  only  the  closest 
watching  of  the  life  history  of  the  ''wiggle-tail'*  convinces 
us  that  it  is  a  mosquito  in  another  form.  The  little 
*'worm"  (larva),  found  in  the  plum,  is  quite  different 
from  the  shy  curcuUo  beetle  that  laid  the  egg.  (Fig.  95.) 
Grasshoppers,  squash  bugs  and  crickets  are  examples  of 
insects  which  attain  maturity  by  gradual  growth  with- 
out distinct  stages.    (See  Fig.  99.) 

227.  How  Insects  Differ  from  Other  Animals.  Insects, 
like  the  frogs  and  snakes,  are  cold-blooded  animals. 
The  temperature  of  their  bodies  changes  with  that  of 
the  air  or  water,  in  whichever  they  happen  to  be.  When 
cold  weather  comes,  many  kinds  find  shelter  under  fallen 
leaves,  sticks,  or  may  burrow  into  the  ground  and  there 
remain  quiet  until  warm  weather  returns.  This  way  of 
passing  the  winter  is  called  hdbernation.  While  hibernat- 
ing, they  may  be  frozen  stiff,  or  the  eggs  and  larvae  may 
be  frozen;  but  when  the  weather  becomes  favorable, 
many  kinds  will  move  about  just  as  lively  as  ever. 
Severe  freezing  may  kill  some,  but  many  will  survive. 
The  propagation  of  some  sorts  is  dependent  on  the 
ability  of  the  eggs  to  withstand  the  winter.  Higher 
animals  have  the  bony  skeleton  inside  of  the  body,  but 
insects  have  the  hard  bony  part  on  the  outside.  The 
muscles  of  insects  are  attached  to  the  outer  body  wall  and 
not  to  internal  bones,  as  in  other  animals.  Insects  do 
not  breathe  through  a  mouth,  but  have  little  breathing 
pores  along  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  nerves  of  the 
insect  that  detect  odors  and  guide  it  to  its  kind  and  food 
are  usually  in  the  Uttle' 'feelers,"  or  antennce,  or  sometimes 
in  the  segments  of  the  legs. 

Some  species  of  insects  die  soon  after  laying  eggs, 
often  before  the  eggs  hatch,  as  the  tent  caterpillar;  others 


158 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


may  live  on  through  a  longer  period,  laying  eggs  con- 
tinuously, as  in  the  case  of  the  cotton  boll-weevil. 

228.  The  Food  of  Insects.  Insects  are  very  peculiar 
about  the  food  they  eat.  Just  Uke  the  many  species  of 
parasitic  fungi,  each  species  feeds,  usually,  on  just  one 
kind  of  plant  or  animal,  or  on  closely  related  plants  or 
animals.  In  such  cases  we  speak  of  the  plant  as  the 
"host"   for   a  particular  insect.    The  Colorado   potato 


Fig.  96.    Colorado  potato  beetle,   a,  eggs;  b,  larvse;  c,  mature  beetle. 
After  Riley. 

beetle  (Fig.  96)  is  a  native  of  the  West,  hving  on  the 
western  species  of  nightshades.  When  the  Irish  potato 
was  introduced,  it  found  a  plant  closely  akin  to  its  regular 
food  plants,  and  on  which  it  thrives  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  takes  its  name  from  the  new  host-plant.  Some- 
times there  is  a  wide  difference  in  the  kinship  of  the  host- 
plants.  The  feeding  habits  of  the  "boll- worm"  of  cotton, 
or  the  "ear-worm"  of  corn,  the  same  insect  in  both  cases 
(Figs.  97  and  103),  is  a  striking  example  of  a 'form  which 
feeds  on  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  plants.    When 


Insects  on  the  Farm 


159 


insects  do  not  find  acceptable  food-plants  they  die. 
Many  insects  are  exclusively  flesh-eating,  such  as  the 
common  "doodle-bugs,"  wasps,  lady-bugs,  and  many 
species  of  wood  ants.  Mosquitos  are  a  common  form 
of  blood-sucking  insects.  Many  parasites  are  solely 
responsible  for  the  spread  of  diseases.  The  ticks  on  cattle, 
which  are  somewhat  related  to  true  insects,  are  carriers  of 
disease.  Cattle  do  not  have  the  splenic  fever  (sometimes 
called  Texas  fever)  except  when  the  germs  are  carried 
by  ticks  that  bite  them.  The 
common  bee  lives  on  the 
nectar  and  pollen  of  flowers. 
It  is  not  the  only  insect  that 
lives  on  nectar.  Most  species 
of  butterflies,  moths,  bum- 
blebees, etc.,  are  nectar- 
loving  insects.  We  have 
already  learned  that  these 
insects  are  very  useful  in 
bringing  about  the  poUina- 
tion  of  flowers. 

229.  The  Feeding  Habits 
of  Different  Stages.  The 
depredations  upon  plants 
and  animals  are  made  in 
various  ways.  Often  the 
immature  stages  are  more  destructive  than  the  adult. 
Most  frequently  it  is  the  larval  stage  (caterpillar,  grub, 
maggot)  that  depredate  upon  the  plants.  The  Colorado 
potato-bug  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leaves.  The  young  larvae 
are  hatched  out,  therefore,  right  at  the  breakfast  table. 
In  the  caterpillar  stage,  some  species  of  insects  occur  in 
great  numbers,  and  they  are,  hence,  often  spoken  of  as 


Fig.  97.  Com  ear -worm  or  cotton 
boll -worm.  After  Quaintance, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  United 
States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. 


160 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


*'army  worms,"  of  which  the  ''cotton  army  worm"  is  a 
common  example  in  the  South.  Some  caterpillars, 
known  as  cutworms,  work  only  at  night.   When  daylight 

comes,  they  are  con- 
cealed under  clods,  and 
any  trash  that  may  be 
present.  They  are  called 
"cutworms"  because 
they  have  a  habit  of  cut- 
ting off  young  plants 
near  the  ground.  They 
are  the  caterpillar  stage 
of  several  kinds  of  night- 
flying  moths.  (Fig.  98.) 
Thus  we  see  that  there 
are  some  insects  which 
are  perfectly  harmless 
in  the  adult  stage,  but 
whose  larvae  do  great  damage.  The  pupal  stage  is  inac- 
tive, and  requires  no  food. 

230.  How  Insects  Get  Their  Food,  (a)  By  Living 
inside  the  Plant.  Internal  Feeders.  It  quite  often  hap- 
pens that  the  egg  is  deposited  inside  of  some  part  of  the 
plant  and  the  larva  develops  there,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
larva  of  the  plum  gouger.  As  the  larva  is  inside  of  the 
plant  (Fig.  95),  it  cannot  be  destroyed  by  any  of  the 
sprays,  and,  in  such  cases,  effort  is  made  to  catch  and 
destroy  the  adults  before  the  eggs  are  laid. 

(b)  External  Feeders.  Insects  that  feed  directly  on 
the  leaves,  fruits,  etc.,  have  mouth  parts  that  are  pro- 
vided with  scissors-like  jaws  by  which  their  food  is  cut 
from  the  plant.  To  destroy  insects  that  feed  in  this  way, 
it  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  leaves  with  some  suitable 


Fig.  98.  Cutworm  and  moth.  After 
Howard.  Bureau  of  Entomology, 
United  States,  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 


Insects  on  the  Farm 


161 


arsenic  compound  by  sprays.  When  they  eat  the  leaves, 
they  consume  enough  of  the  poison  to  induce  their 
death.  Paris  green,  London  purple,  and  arsenate  of  lead 
are  the  most  usual  poisons.  Grasshoppers,  potato  bugs 
and  army  worms  may  be  killed  in  this  way.  In  some  por- 
tions of  Texas  there  are  leaf-cutting  ants,  which  attack 
^.rees  and  cut  and  carry  off  nearly  all  the  leaves.   These 


Fig.  99.  Squash  bug.  A,  eggs  on  leaf;  6,  egg-shell;  c,  d,  e,  f,  nymphs;  g,  adult. 
After  Chittenden.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

ants  do  not  eat  the  leaves,  but  carry  them  into  their 
underground  nests  and  use  them  as  a  medium  or  soil 
on  which  to  grow  a  fungus  which  they  do  eat.  These 
ants  are  real  "farmer  insects,"  in  that  the  food  they  eat 
is  grown  by  their  own  efforts.  Carbon  bisulfide,  poured 
into  their  nest,  may  sometimes  destroy  the  colony, 
(c)  By   Sucking   the   Juices.     We   may    distinguish 


162 


Elern.entary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


other  groups  of  insects  by  the  way  they  get  their  food 
from  the  plant  or  animal.  Instead  of  having  jaws  with 
which  they  may  bite  off  and  chew  their  food,  their 
mouth  parts  are  shaped  into  a  kind  of  tube  which  they 
use  to  suck  blood  or  sap,  nectar  or  viscid  matter.  The 
squash-bug  (Fig.  99)  and  the  chinch-bug  get  their  food 
by  sucking.  Plant  Uce,  such  as  the  green  bug,  and  San 
Jose  scale  (Fig.  100)  are  also  sucking  insects. 


Fig.  100.     San  Jose  scale  on  plum.   A,  natural  size;  b,  magnified; 
c.  greatly  magnified. 

Insects  should  not  be  classed  as  "biting  insects"  and 
"sucking  insects"  because  some  species  have  biting 
mouth  parts  at  one  stage  of  their  life  cycle  and  sucking 
mouth  parts  at  another.  The  caterpillars  gnaw  or  bite 
their  food,  while  the  parent  moths  or  butterflies  have  a 
sucking  tongue.  Some  kinds  with  sucking  mouth  parts 
are  comparatively  free,  their  host  and  habitat  being 
often  unknown.  Many  kinds,  however,  have  developed 
fixed  parasitic  habits.  Most  of  the  bloodthirsty  pests 
belong  here,  such  as  horse  and  cattle  flies,  the  mosquitos 
and  the  common  bed-bug.  The  sucking  insects  are  usu- 
ally external  feeders.  Exceptions  are  noted  in  the  case 
of  the  horse  bot  and  the  cattle  warble. 

230a.  Structure  of  Insects.  For  this  exercise  the  pupil  should 
secure  good  specimens  of  the  grasshopper  and  butterfly,  as  these 


Insects  on  the  Farm  163 

two  insects  illustrate  the  difference  of  mouth  parts  as  seen  in  insects. 
Some,  as  the  grasshopper,  have  biting  mouth  parts,  while  others, 
as  squash  bugs,  etc.,  have  mouth  parts  suited  to  suck  up  the 
plant  juices  or  nectar,  (a)  Note  the  large  eyes  in  the  front  and 
side  of  the  head  of  each  insect.  These  are  called  compound  eyes 
because  they  are  made  up  of  a  great  number  of  simple  eyes,  (b) 
Note  also  the  feelers  or  antennae,  and  the  mouth  parts.  The  large 
black  jaws  of  the  grasshopper  are  used  for  biting,  while  the  long 
coiled  tongue-like  organ  of  the  butterfly  is  used  for  obtaining  food 
by  sucking  out  the  nectar  from  flowers. 

230b.  The  next  region  of  the  body  behind  the  head  is  called  the 
thorax.  In  each  insect  the  thorax  is  composed  of  three  segments.  Each 
segment  has  a  pair  of  legs  attached.  All  insects  have  six  legs,  and 
are  sometimes  called  Hexapoda  on  this  account.  On  each  insect  you 
will  usually  find  one  or  two  pairs  of  wings.  These  wings  are  attached 
to  the  second  and  third  segments  of  the  thorax.  Notice  that  the 
wings  of  the  butterfly  are  covered  with  a  "powder."  This  powder  is 
made  up  of  small  scales  attached  to  the  wing  in  rows  overlapping 
each  other  very  much  like  the  shingles  of  a  roof.  The  wings  of  the 
grasshopper  are  smooth  and  firm  with  a  large  number  of  small  veins. 

230c.  The  next  section  of  the  body  behind  the  thorax  is  called 
the  abdomen,  which  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  segments  or  rings. 
By  looking  along  the  side  of  the  abdomen  of  the  grasshopper  there 
will  be  seen  a  number  of  small  openings  or  pores.  These  are  the 
breathing  pores  and  nearly  all  insects  have  such  breathing  pores  on 
the  abdomen  and  thorax.  At  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  the  segments 
are  changed  a  little  in  their  form  and  size.  This  tip  of  the  abdo- 
men of  the  female  is  the  egg  depositor.  The  grasshoppers  usually 
bore  down  into  the  ground  and  deposit  their  eggs,  while  other  in- 
sects deposit  their  eggs  in  the  bark  of  trees,  young  fruit,  etc. 

230d.  Collect  some  of  the  common  insects  from  the  plants  in 
the  school-garden,  or  from  the  fields,  and  determine  whether  they 
have  sucking  or  biting  mouth  parts. 

231.  General  Method  of  Destroying  Injurious  Insects. 

The  number  of  injurious  insects  appearing  at  any  one 
time  is  affected  by  their  food  supply,  weather  conditions, 
and  their  natural  enemies,  such  as  birds,  lizards,  and 
other  kinds  of  insects.    Wherever  it  is  possible,  encour- 


164 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


agement  should  be  given  to  these  common  enemies. 
Field  pests  can  sometimes  be  killed  by  running  heavy 
rollers  over  the  fields,  or  by  plowing  or  harrowing.    The 

leaf-eating  forms 
can  frequently  be 
killed  by  spraying 
the  leaves  with 
poisons.  Others, 
like  the  sucking 
insects,  may  be 
killed  by  spraying 
directly  onto  the 
insect  some  sub- 
stance that  kills 
by  contact,  such 
as    oils,    alkali 

Fig.  101.   This  apple  might  have  been  kept  sound     '^^SheS,    etC.     The 
by  spraying.    From  Cornell  University  Junior     poison     mUSt    not 

N^*^^^^*-  be  strong  enough 

to  injure  the  plants.  In  some  cases,  the  insects  may  be 
killed  by  treating  the  plants  with  poisonous  fumes  or 
gases,  such  as  tobacco  smoke,  and  the  deadly  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas,  uesd  especially  for  San  Jose  scale.  Where 
plants  are  sprayed  to  prevent  fungous  diseases,  the  poison 
for  insects  may  be  applied  in  the  same  solution  at  the 
same  time.  There  are  many  kinds  of  special  machines 
for  applying  fungicides  and  insecticides.  They  are  fully 
described  in  special  books  and  bulletins. 

232.  Classification  of  Insecticides.  Substances  that 
are  used  to  poison  insects  are  called  insecticides.  There 
are  many  substances  used  to  kill  insects.  They  may  be 
grouped  into  three  classes,  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  they  poison  the  insect. 


Insects  on  the  Farm 


165 


(a)  Food,  or  Internal  Poisons,  are  substances  which 
poison  by  being  taken  into  the  digestive  tract  of  the 
insect.  This  class  includes  various  arsenical  compounds, 
such  as  Paris  green,  London  purple,  lead  arsenate. 
Poisons  of  this  class  are  used  for  insects  that  chew  their 
food,  as  the  leaf-eating  forms,  unless  the  use  of  the  poison 


Fig.  102.    Spraying  in  the  late  dormant  season. 

renders  the  plants  dangerous  for  food,  such  as  cabbage. 

(b)  Contact  Poison.  Substances  that  destroy  by 
attacking  the  body  of  the  insect,  such  as  washes  of 
caustic  alkalies,  oils,  etc.  They  are  used  for  sucking  in- 
sects, i.e.,  those  having  beaks,  such  as  the  San  Jose  scale. 

(c)  Fumigation  Poisons.  Substances  which  enter  the 
breathing  pores  of  the  insect  and  cause  death  by  poison- 
ing or  suffocation.  Smoke,  and  the  deadly  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas,  Pyrethrum,  or  "insect  powder,"  and  carbon 
bisulphide,  belong  to  this  class. 


Fig.  103.  The  cotton-boll  worm.  After  Quaintance  and  Brues.  1,  Eggs  on  com 
silk,  twice  natural  size;  2-4,  early  larval  stages,  somewhat  enlarged;  5, 
boll -worm  eating  into  half -grown  ball,  natural  size;  6,  mature  larva, 
natural  size;  7,  boll-worm  on  green  tomato,  one -half  natural  size;  8, 
full  grown  larva  burrowing  into  soil  for  pupation;  9a,  showing  line  of 
movement  of  larva  into  the  soil;  96,  pupal  chamber  with  pupa  at  bottom; 
10,  mature  pupa,  slightly  magnified;  11,  boll -worm  motn  with  winga 
expanded,  natural  size.  • 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
SOME  SPECIAL  INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


233.  Insects  that  Attack  Cotton.  There  are  several 
species  of  insects  that  injure  the  cotton  plant,  such  as 
the  cotton  army  or  leaf-worm,  cotton  boll-worm,  the 
Mexican  boll-weevil,  and  the  cotton  aphis.  The  leaf- 
worm  and  boll-worm  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying 
or  dusting  with  arsenical  poisons.   (See  also  Fig.  216.) 

234.  The  Boll-Worm  of  cotton,  destroys  the  flower- 
buds  or  squares,  and  locks  of  the  bolls.  The  same  insect 
damages  the  tips  of  more  than  75  per  cent  of  the  ears 
in  the  corn  fields.  The  damage  to  corn  ears  is  probably 
fully  3  to  5  per  cent  of  the  crop.  The  pupae  hibernate 
in  the  ground  through  the  fall  and  winter  and  do  not 
mature  into  moths  until  late  in  the  spring.   These  facts 

suggest  the  advisability  of  early  fall 
plowing  to  expose  the  pupa  to  the 
severe  weather  conditions  of  the 
winter  seasons,  predaceous  insects 
and  birds.  (What  other  reasons  have 
already  been  mentioned  for  early 
plowmg?)  Advantage  is  taken  of  the 
habit  of  the  insect  of  attacking  corn 
and  cowpeas  in  preference  to  cotton, 
to  protect  the  latter.  ''Trap  rows"  of 
corn  and  cowpeas  may  be  planted 
near  the  cotton  to  attract  the  moths. 
In  this  way  the  damage  to  the  cotton 
is  lessened.  Corn  is  used,  also,  in  pro- 
(167) 


Fig.  104.  Mexican  Cotton- 
boll  weevil.  (Enlarged 
five  times.)  Howard, 
United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


168 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


tecting  tomatoes  from  this  insect.  Corn  designed  for 
"trapping"  boll- worms  should  be  planted  later  than  the 
regular  crop.  Much  better  results  will  be  secured  if  the 
corn  is  planted  late.     (Fig.  103.) 

235.  Chinch  Bugs  infest  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  other 

grass  plants.  They 
occur  widely  dis- 
tributed and  do 
more  damage  to 
field  crops  than  any 
other  insect.  They 
are  small,  dark  col- 
ored sucking  bugs 
(see  plate),  which 
infest  growing  grain 
throughout  the 
warm  season.  They 
are  usually  present 
in  all  grain  fields 
during  spring  and 
summer  months, 
and  do  consider- 
able damage  that  is 
often  not  noticed. 

While  the  chinch 
bugs  have  wings^ 
they  are  inclined  to  travel  by  crawling.  When  a  small 
grain  crop  is  harvested  they  migrate  to  near-by  corn 
fields.  To  protect  the  corn,  the  land  should  be  disked 
at  once  to  destroy  the  bugs  and  grass  that  would  feed 
them.  As  they  migrate  to  the  corn  they  can  be  caught 
in  deep  dusty  furrows  and  destroyed  by  dragging  a  log 
thru  the  furrow  in  the  afternoons.     They  do  not  migrate 


Fig.  105.  You  can  find  Chinch  bugs  in  winter 
quarters  in  this  way  if  present  in  threatening 
numbers.    Courtesy  Prof.  T.  J,  Headlee. 


>^^^-feJt 


STAGES  IN  THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHINCH   BUG 

1.  Egg,  usually  deposited  on  roots,  near  the  crown. 

2,  3,  4  and  5.     Nymphs  of  different  ages. 
6.     Mature  chinch  bug 

Courtesy  Dr.  Forbes,  University  of  Illinois. 


Some  Special  Injurious  Insects 


169 


at  night;  usually  in  the  afternoons.  In  wet  weather  the 
corn  may  be  protected  by  a  line  of  tar  or  crude  oil.  Chinch 
bugs  pass  the  winter  in  tufts  of  grass  (Fig.  105). 

236.  The  Hessian  Fly  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  is 
supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into  America  by  the 
Hessian  soldiers  in  the  Revolutionary  War;  hence  the 
name.  Next  to  the  chinch  bug  it  is  the  most  serious  in- 
sect pest  of  the  wheat  crop.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  damage  can  be 

largely  prevented  by  l//fi/       VI  II 

plowing  under  the 
stubble  j  ust  after  har- 
vest and  destroying 
the  volunteer  wheat 
in  summer.  The 
stubble  harbors  the 
pupal  stage.  [If  226.] 
If  turned  under 
deeply  it  prevents  many  of  the  flies  from  escaping,  and  thus 
reduces  the  late  '^ summer  crop"  of  flies  and  maggots. 

The  adult  Hessian  fly  may  be  seen  in  infested  fields 
in  late  summer  or  early  spring.  It  is  a  yellowish  brown 
colored,  long-legged,  gnat-like  insect  (Fig.  106).  The 
female  lays  slender,  oval,  reddish  eggs,  lengthwise  the 
grooves  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves.  These  eggs,  just 
large  enough  to  be  seen  with  the  unaided  eye,  hatch  out 
tiny  reddish  larvae  that  wriggle  down  to  the  stem  under 
the  leaf  sheath  w^here  they  feed  and  grow.  The  maggots 
soon  lose  their  reddish  color,  turn  white,  form  a  flaxseed- 
like  brown  pupa  before  cold  weather.  Some  of  the  pupae 
hatch  out,  producing  the  ''spring  crop"  of  flies.  Most  of 
the  pupae,  however,  remain  dormant  on  the  stubble  and 
develop  the  late  "summer  brood"  of  flies,  which  in  turn 


Fig.  106.  Hessian  fly.  a,  adult,  about  three  times 
natural  size;  b,  pupa  or  "flaxseed"  stage,  slightly 
enlarged ;  c,  larvae  or  maggots,  enlarged.  After 
Washburn. 


170  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

produce  the  destructive  maggots.  Destroying  volunteer 
wheat  starves  the  summer  crop  of  maggots.  Plowing 
under  the  stubble  destroys  the  pupae  and  prevents  the 
summer  crop  from  developing.  Late  sowing  starves  out 
.the  early  fall  crop  of  maggots.  These  preventive 
measures  enable  wheat  farmers  to  largely  overcome  the 
damages  caused  by  Hessian  flies. 

236a.  The  Argentine  Ant  was  first  noticed  in  this 
country  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  1891,  and  has  become 
a  serious  pest  over  much  territory.  The  species  is  a 
native  of  Brazil  and  Argentine  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  in  on  coffee  ships  from  Brazilian 
ports.  Kecently  it  has  been  found  in  several  localities 
in  California.  The  ants  forage  both  day  and  night, 
invading  dwellings,  swarming  over  all  kinds  of  food, 
and  even  attacking  sleeping  infants.  It  bites  severely, 
but  does  not  sting.  As  an  agricultural  menace,  it 
destroys  buds,  blooms,  fruit,  and  fosters  plant  lice  and 
scale  insects  (^239).  The  cotton  louse  and  the  sugar 
cane  mealy-bug  increase  rapidly  under  the  care  of 
these  ants.  They  attack  and  destroy  native  ants,  and 
other  useful  insects.  Their  nests  may  be  destroyed  by 
using  carbon  bisulphide,  potassium  cyanide,  or  oil. 
Poisoning  is  accomplished  by  using  a  bait  of  arsenic 
in  syrup.  A  jar  provided  with  a  perforated  top  and 
containing  a  sponge  saturated  with  the  poisoned  syrup 
can  be  used  in  the  house  as  safely  as  out  of  doors. 

236b.  San  Jose  Scale  (pronounced  San  Ho-se)  is 
easily  recognized  on  fruit  trees  by  an  incrustation  of 
minute  circular  bodies  with  a  pimple-like  center,  as 
pictured  in  figure  100.  The  insect  itself  lives  under 
the  circular  scale.     Several   generations  will   be   pro- 


Some  Special  Injurious  Insects 


171 


duced  in  a  season.  Young  scales  are  possibly  carried 
from  orchard  to  orchard  by  birds,  winds  and  other 
agencies,  but  most  usually  on  nursery  stock.  Lady 
bugs  (^247)  and  parasites  are  important  natural 
enemies,  but  effective  control  depends  on  the  use  of 
contact  poisons  (^232c)  when  the  trees  are  dormant, 
preference  being  given  to  the  lime-sulphur  wash. 
(See  appendix  B). 

237.  Tent  Caterpillars  are  often  found  in  fruit  trees. 
They  are  easily  discovered  in  the  spring  by  their  large 
webs  supported  on  the  branches.  Small  bunches  of  eggs, 
like  those  shown  in 
Fig.  108c,  may  be 
found  much  earlier. 
These  eggs  are  laid 
late  in  the  summer 
and  covered  by  a 
sticky  substance  to 
protect  them  from 
the  winter  rains. 
They  hatch  out  usu- 
ally just  about  the 
time  the  buds  open 
and  the  caterpil- 
lars feed  on  the 
young  buds  and 
leaves.  The  cater- 
pillars soon  spin  a 
delicate  cloth -like 
web  or  tent,  to 
which  they  retire  at 
night,   and  in  bad 

weather.         These       Fig.  lOS.    The  tent-caterpillar.   a  and  b,  larva; 

caterpillars  are  Ull?^'^'^''  ^' '°'°°^' '' ^^"-s^°^-  ^'^' 


172 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


well  marked  with  dots  and  lines  along  the  bodies,  that  are 
characteristic  for  each  species.  After  a  time  they  leave 
the  tree  and  each  individual  spins  a  paper-like  case, 
called  a  "cocoon,"  in  some  sheltered  place.  The  adult 
moth  emerges  from  the  cocoon  in  a  few  weeks,  and  lays 
the  eggs  as  mentioned  above.  These  changes  may  be 
observed  by  bringing  the  almost  mature  caterpillars  into 
wire-screened  cages.  These  caterpillars  are  attacked  by 
many  insect  parasites,  snakes,  frogs,  and  particularly  by 
birds.  The  orchard  should  be  inspected 
in  the  early  spring  for  webs. 

238.  "Wire- 
worms"  are  very 
common  in  fields. 
They  are  the  larval  stage  of 
various  species  of  night-fly- 
ing beetles,  such  as  the  click- 
beetles.  The  adult  lives  on  the 
nectar  obtained  from  flowers 
while  the  larval  stage  lives  in 
the  ground  and  thrives  on  the 
roots,  leaves,  and  stems  of 
young  plants. 

239.  Plant -lice,  or  Aphids, 
are  common  everywhere.  There 
are  many  kinds,  and  all  are 
quite  small.  Plant-lice  are  soft- 
bodied,  usually  green,  like  the 
''green  bug,"  but  some  forms 
are  colored  red  or  black  or 
Fig.  109.  A  corn-plant  growing     Other  color*   Most  of  them  are 

in  a   root-cage  infested  by      wiudeSS,  thoUgh   SOme  of  them 
wire-worms  and  click-beetles.  .  „ 

After  comstock.  Will  have  two  pairs  01  transpar- 


Some  Special  Injurious  Insects 


173 


ent  wings.  They  almost  always  occur  in  colonies, 
frequently  of  immense  numbers.  They  feed  upon  the 
leaves,  buds,  tender  stems,  and  even  the  roots  in  some 
sorts  of  plants.  They 
do  much  damage  by 
sucking  the  plant  j  uices. 
Some  species  secrete  a 
substance  known  as 
''honey  dew,"  which  is 
sought  after  by  ants. 
The  ants  care  for  the 
aphis  and  protect  them 
from  the  depredations 
of  predaceous  insects. 
The  scale  insects  are 
somewhat  allied  to  the 
plant-lice.  The  San 
Jose  scale  is  the  most 
serious  representative  of  the  many  scale  insects.  (Fig.  100.) 
239a.  Colonies  of  plant-lice  may  be  found  frequently  on  road- 
side weeds,  sometimes  under  the  folded  edges  of  leaves  tended  by 
ants.  Such  a  colony  should  be  closely  observed.  Small  tubes  may 
usually  be  seen  on  the  abdomen  of  the  lice.  The  ants  have  a  way  of 
stroking  the  lice  to  make  them  give  off  the  honey  dew.  This  action 
is  often  fancifully  called  "ants  milking  their  cows." 

240.  Insects  Injurious  to  Stored  Grain.  The  insects 
that  damage  stored  grain  are  the  larvse  of  moths  and 
beetles,  and  several  species  of  weevils  remotely  akin  to 
the  plum-gouger  and  cotton  boll-weevil.  Corn,  wheat, 
peas,  and  many  other  seeds  are  often  damaged  by  these 
insects  while  stored.  Some  species  are  very  destructive. 
The  "grain-weevil"  is  the  most  destructive,  particularly 
to  corn,  peas,  barley,  kafir  corn,  etc.  The  two  most 
common  species  of  weevil  are  shown  in  Fig.  111.    The 


Fig.  110.  The  spring-grain  aphis,  a,  wing- 
less female;  6,  larva;  c,  pupa;  d,  winged 
migrant.  After  Webster,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


174 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


the  rice-weevil  is  common,  and  has  a  dull  brown  color. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  corn,  often  before  it  is  gathered. 
During  warm  weather  it  requires  about  six  weeks  to 
mature  a  weevil  from  the  egg,  while,  in  cold  weether, 

they  multiply  very 
slowly.  The  egg- 
laying  continues 
over  a  consider- 
able period  and,  as 
it  requires  such  a 
short  while  to  ma- 
ture a  new  brood, 
it  is  no  wonder 
that  they  are  found 
in  such  numbers  in 
grain  stored  for 
any  considerable 
time.  It  is  esti- 
mated that,  in  the 
course  of  a  season, 
they  mature  six  or 
more  generations,  amounting  to  500  or  more  individuals 
from  a  single  pair. 

241.  The  Grain  Moths  do  more  damage  to  the  stored 
grain  than  the  weevils.  The  most  common  species  is 
the  Angoumois  grain  moth,  so  named  from  the  province 
of  Angoumois,  France.  It  attacks  grain  in  the  field  as 
well  as  in  the  bin.  The  adult  somewhat  resembles  the 
common  clothes  moth.  It  is  light  grayish  brown  and 
about  a  half-inch  across  when  the  wings  are  expanded. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  in  clusters  of  twenty  to  thirty 
and  require  only  about  four  to  seven,  or  more,  days 
to   hatch   the    caterpillars.     The    latter   bore  into  the 


Fig.  111.  Granary  weevil,  a,  adult;  6,  larva; 
c,  pupa;  d,  rice  weevil.  All  enlarged.  After 
Chittenden. 


Some  Special  Injurious  Insects  175 

grain,  and,  after  feeding  on  the  starchy  matter  for  about 
three  weeks,  form  a  thin  silken  cocoon,  from  which  the 
adult  moth  emerges  in  a  few  days.  About  thirty-five 
days  are  used  in  passing  from  egg  to  adult.  Four  to, 
possibly,  eight  broods  mature  during  the  year.  When 
grain  is  stored  in  bulk,  only  the  surface  layers  are  in- 
fested. Both  the  weevils  and  moths  are  subject  to  attacks 
by  parasites. 

242.  Preventing  Injury  to  Stored  Grain.  To  reduce 
the  injury  to  stored  grain,  use  is  made  of  repellants  like 
napthalene  (so-called  "moth  balls"),  salt,  air-slaked 
lime,  and  other  substances  which,  while  not  poisonous, 
drive  the  insect  out.  A  temperature  of  125°  Fahr.  is 
sufficient  to  kill  weevils,  though  more  than  150°  Fahr. 
may  be  endured  by  dry  grain  without  loss  of  ger- 
minating power.  Treating  the  grains  to  the  vapors  of 
bisulfide  of  carbon  in  tight  bins  is  by  far  the  most  satis- 
factory means  of  protecting  stored  grain.  In  destroying 
the  insects,  use  one  pound  to  one  hundred  bushels  of 
grain. 


Fig.  112.     Angoumois  grain  moth. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
USEFUL  INSECTS 

243.  Useful  Insects.  Some  insects  are  useful  because 
they  supply  food;  as  the  honey-bee.  Others  supply 
materials  for  clothing,  as  the  silkworm.  Still  others,  as 
we  have  seen,  cause  flowers  to  set  fruit  by  carrying 
pollen  from  flower  to  flower.  (See  ^  167.)  There  are 
many  species  which  are  especially  useful  in  man's  battle 
with  the  forces  of  nature,  because  they  prey  upon  the 
injurious  insects. 

244.  Wasps.  There  are  many  kinds  of  wasps.  The 
common  ''red  wasps"  and  "yellow  jackets,"  with  their 
paper  nests  made  out  of  the  fragments  of  plants,  are 
well  known.  The  mud-dauber  is  another  common  wasp. 
There  are  many  species  of  wasps  that  do  not  live  in 
colonies  Uke  the  ones  just  mentioned,  but  live  singly, 
and  are,  hence,  called  ''solitary  wasps."  The  wasps  are 
somewhat  related  to  the  domestic  bees,  and  bumble- 
bees. But  instead  of  storing  nectar  and  pollen  for  food, 
as  the  bees  do,  they  fill  the  cells  of  their  nest  with  the 
younger  stages  of  other  insects  as  food  for  the  young 
wasps.  The  adults  prefer  nectar  and  pollen  for  them- 
selves, however.  The  mud-dauber  fills  the  mud-cells  with 
the  bodies  of  young  spiders,  flies,  etc.,  and  before  sealing 
up  the  hole,  deposits  an  egg.  The  food  for  the  larva  is 
there  ready  for  it  when  it  is  hatched.  Wasps  are  said  to 
catch  the  biting  flies  that  worry  stock;  and,  especially, 
the  larvse  of  the  boll-worm.  Wasps'  nests  should  not  be 
destroyed  except,  possibly,  in  orchards. 

(176; 


Useful  Insects 


177 


245.  Ichneumon  Flies,  of  which  there  are  many- 
kinds,  are  somewhat  related  to  the  bees  and  wasps. 
The  adult  often  feeds  on  nectar.  The  usefulness  of  this 
class  of  insects  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  young  are 
parasites.  They  do  not  secure  their  prey  by  force. 
Instead  of  catching  the  insects  and  carrying  them  to  the 
young  larvse,  their  eggs  are  deposited  in  or  on  the  bodies 
of  their  victims,  and  there  grow  into  grubs.  The  grubs 
mature  in  or  on  the  body  of  the  hosts.  The  eggs  of  the 


Fig.  113.  A,  dead  "  green  bugs,"  showing  hole  from 
which  the  matured  parasite  emerges.  The  top 
figure  shows  the  lid  still  attached,  but  pushed 
back;  the  bottom  figure  shows  the  parasite 
emerging;  B,  principal  parasite  of  the  spring 
grain-aphis  or  "green-bug;"  adult  female,  highly- 
magnified.  After  Webster,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


parasite  are  most  otten  deposited  in  caterpillars,  though 
sometimes  in  the  chrysalis,  pupa,  or  on  tne  adult  stage, 
or  even  in  the  eggs  of  their  hosts.  Entomologists  formerly 
thought  that  each  kind  or  species  of  parasitic  insect 
secured  its  food  from  just  one  or  two  kinds  of  hosts, 
somewhat  similar  to  that  noticed  in  the  parasitic  fungi 
previously  mentioned  (1[217).  Recent  investigations 
have  shown  that  there  is  much  less  restriction  in  feed- 
ing habits  among  parasitic   insects  than  was  formerly 


178 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


thought.  One  species  (Fig.  113)  of  ichneumon  fly  is 
important  because  it  attacks  the  green  bug,  usually  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  prevent  serious  injury.  This  para- 
site thrives  only  during  warm  weather,  however,  while 
the  green  bugs  may  endure  much  cold  weather.  Below 
central  Texas,  the  parasitic  flies  are  active  at  all  seasons 
and  that  section  has  never  been  seriously  damaged  by 
the  green  bug.  In  other  parts,  the  entire  grain  crops 
have  been  almost  destroyed  several  times  because  the 
cool  weather  retarded  the  multiplication  of  the  parasites. 
Ichneumon  flies  are  parasitized  by  other  ichneumon 

flies,  and  these  in  turn 
by  others,  reminding 
one  of  the  old  adage 
that  'Targe  fleas  have 
smaller  fleas  to  bite 
'em." 

246.  Ants.  Many 
species  of  ants  live  on 
the  eggs  and  larvae  of 
other  insects.  The  "fire 
ants"  in  particular  are 
very  useful  in  cotton 
fields  because  they  de- 
stroy many  grubs  of 
boll -weevils  in  fallen 
buds.  The  common  red 
stinging  ant  lives  on 
weed  seeds  and  wild 
grain,  and  sometimes 
attacks  other  insects. 
Some  forms  of  ants,  particularly  some  tropical  species, 
are  serious  pests. 


Fig.  114.  Two  common  species  of  lady  bugs. 
a,  hippodamia;  6.  megilla;  c  and  d,  larva 
stages.  After  Chittenden,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


Useful  Insects  179 

247.  Lady  Bugs  are  another  class  of  insect-eating 
insects.  They  feed  on  eggs  of  the  Colorado  potato  bugs, 
and  on  plant-lice.  The  larger  forms  are  easily  recog- 
nized by  their  red  and  black-spotted  color.  Two  im- 
portant kinds  of  lady  bugs  are  pictured  in  Fig.  114. 
One  species,  Megilla  maculata  (Fig.  114),  is  especially 
active  in  feeding  on  the  green  bug  on  grains,  while 
another,  Hippodamia  convergens,  is  more  active  on  the 
plant-lice  on  cotton  and  melons.  The  latter  will  lay 
about  fifteen  eggs  per  day,  and  often  a  total  of  500  eggs. 
These  are  deposited  on  leaves  in  clusters  of  from  a  few 
to  fifty  in  a  place.  A  lady  bug  will  eat  about  lifty  aphids 
per  day.  We  recognize  these  insects  as  a  benefit  to  man- 
kind in  various  ways, 

248.  Parasitic  Insects  are  possibly  the  most  import- 
ant class  of  beneficial  insects.  Without  them,  the 
locusts  or  grasshoppers,  the  caterpillars  of  butter- 
flies and  moths,  and  many  other  kinds,  would  destroy 
all  the  plants.  Every  farm  in  extreme  southern  regions 
should  have  a  '^ady  bug  patch."  They  require  plenty 
of  insect  food  for  rapid  multiplication  and  this  should 
be  provided  by  growing  some  crop  that  harbors  insects 
through  the  winter.  Some  winter-growing  plant,  like 
rape,  which  has  a  winter  insect  parasite,  the  cabbage 
aphis.  The  lady  bugs,  thus  having  food  through  the 
winter,  grow  and  multiply  until  spring  when  food  natur- 
ally becomes  abundant. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

WILD    BIRDS  AND  OTHER  INSECT- 
EATING  ANIMALS 


249.  Most  Birds  Benefit  the  Farmer,  because  their 
food  consists  very  largely  of  harmful  insects,  weed  seeds, 
mice,  etc.  Some  birds  eat  the  grain  or  do  much  damage 
to  the  fruit,  but  without  the  birds,  the  insects  would  be 
far  more  destructive.  In  1753,  Benjamin  Franklin 
wrote  to  a  friend: — ''In  New  England  they  once  thought 
blackbirds  useless,  and  mischievous  to  the  corn.  They 
made  efforts  to  destroy  them.  The  consequence  was, 
the  blackbirds  diminished,  but  a  kind  of  worm  which  de- 
voured their  grass,  and  which  the  blackbirds  used  to  feed 
upon,  increased  prodigiously;  then,  finding  their  loss 
in  grass  greater  than  their  gain  in  corn,  they  wished 
again  for  the  blackbirds." 

250.  Birds  Like  Insect  Food  Best.  Every  one  has 
noticed  how  the  field-larks,  and  other  birds,  fly  into  the 

newly  plowed  furrow.  They 
are  not  looking  for  freshly 
planted  seeds  as  some  sup- 
pose, but  for  worms  and  in- 
sects which  the  plow  uncovers. 
They  prefer  insects,  but  will 
eat  weed  or  grain  seeds  if  in- 
sects are  scarce.  In  summer 
the  field -lark  (or  "meadow- 
lark,"  as  he  is  most  often  called 
in     the     North)    eats     insects 

(180) 


Fig.  115.   Food  of  the  meadow- 
lark  by  months. 


Wild  Birds  and  Other  Insect-eating  Animals     181 


almost  entirely,  but  in  winter  when  he  cannot  find 
insects,  he  has  to  eat  weed  seeds,  and  waste  grain.  (See 
Fig.  115  and  table  of  food  by  months.)  The  young  of 
all  kind  of  birds,  including  those  of  the  vegetable- 
feeding  adults,  feed  largely  on  insects.    (See  Fig.  116.) 


Food  for  the  Year. 


Months 


Stomachs 
Examined 


January 13 

February 1 

March 12 

April 28 

May 8 

June 20 

July 18 

August 28 

September 29 

October 40 

November 22 

December 19 


Animal 

Food 

Per  cent 

24.36 
.00 
73.14 
77.51 
97.99 
95.79 
97.32 
99.35 
99.20 
94.39 
77.08 
39.22 


Grain 
Per  cent 

75.28 

25.00 

17.00 

15.10 

1.88 

2.10 

.00 

.00 

.40 

.61 

6.50 

32.70 


Total  foryear 238        72.95         14.71 


Weed 
Seeds 
Per  cent 
.36 

75.00 

9.86 

7.39 

.13 

2.11 

2.68 

.65 

.40 

5.00 

16.42 

28.08 

12.34 


Total 
Per  cent 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

100 


251.  Beneficial  Birds  Should  not  be  Killed  for  food, 
neither  for  sport,  nor  for  decorations  for  hats.    Every 


Adult  Nestlings 

Fig.  116.   Diagram  showing  proportions  of  food  of  English  sparrow 
young  and  adult. 


182^ 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


time  one  feels  tempted  to  kill  birds,  he  should  not  only 
think  of  the  good  they  do  by  destroying  insects  and 
weed  seeds,  but  possibly  not  far  off  there  is  a  group  of 
tender  nestlings  waiting  for  mama  or  papa  bird  to  come 
home  with  a  morsel  of  food,  to  check  the  pangs  of  hunger. 
When  women  decorate  their  hats  with  aigrettes,  they 
encourage  selfish  persons  to  kill  harmless  birds.  It  is 
against  the  laws  of  many  states  to  kill  the  useful  birds. 
No  one  should  want  to  destroy  them.  Birds  should  be 
protected  at  all  seasons.  Define  ''game  birds"  and 
''Non-game  birds,"  as  used  in  the  laws  of  your  state. 

252.  English  Sparrows  (Fig.  117)  live  almost  exclu- 
sively  on   the   farmers'    crops,   besides   destroying  the 


Fig,  117.    English  sparrow. 

eggs  and  nests  of  other  birds.  They  should  be  de- 
stroyed. The  native  species  of  sparrows  are  insect- 
eating  birds. 

253.  Migration  of  Birds.  Some  birds  live  all  the  time 
in  the  same  locality,  Hke  the  partridge,  Texas  road- 
runner,  and  downy  woodpecker,  the  sparrow,  and  the 


Wild  Birds  and  Other  Insect-eating  Animals     183 


cardinal,  while  other  kinds,  as  the  robin,  bluejay,  etc., 

spend  one  season  in  one  part  of  the  world,   and  the 

others     elsewhere. 

Everybody      knows 

that  the  wild  geese 

''fly    over''    in    the 

fall,  going  south  to 

the    warm     salt 

waters,     and     back 

again  in  the  spring 

on  their  way  to  the 

breeding-grounds  in 

Canada.      Likewise, 

the  field-lark  spends 

the  summer  in  the 

North,    and   in   the 

fall  and  winter   he 

makes    his    home 

in  the  South.    (Fig. 

118.) 

253a.    Make   a  list 
of    the    kinds  of    birds, 
found    in    the   county. 
How  many  kinds  are  permanent  residents,  and  how  many  visit 
for  only  a  part  of  the  year? 

254.  The  Feeding  Habits  of  Birds.  The  farmer  is 
interested  in  the  birds  because  they  eat  the  insects  that 
destroy  his  crops.  The  illustrations.  Figs.  119  and 
120,  show  how  much  of  each  kind  of  food  some  common 
birds  eat.  Some  birds,  like  the  swallows  and  scissor- 
tailed  flycatcher,  live  on  insects  almost  entirely.  Others, 
like  the  dove,  eat  nearly  all  weed  seeds  and  grain,  but 
most  birds  eat  some  of  both.    It  will  be  interesting  to 


Fig.  118.   Meadow  lark  or  field  lark. 


mouse  M^en        2  SongrSparrour  Z  Orchard  Oriole 


7  Mocking -bird      S  Blue  Jay 


9  Cardinal 


10  RedHeadod 
Woodpecker 

Beneficial  Animals 


11  Red  Mnged 
Blackbird, 


12  American 
Croir- 


Fruits 


Fig.  119. 


qloooo 


Grain 


Injurious  Animals 
^^^    mid  Seed 


Diagram  illustrating  the  proportions  of  the  food  of  various  beneficial 
and  destructive  birds. 


J9 RoadRunner    20  HuminiTigEird    21  buzzard 


22  Toad^  23  HornedLizzard  240ucken Snake 

3QTiQficial Animals 


Fruits 


1^1 


Grain 


InjiJirious/kiirnals\  [ 

jrudSoQdsWM 


Fig.  120.   Diagram  illustrating  the  proportions  of  the  food  of  various  beneficial 
ana  destructive  birds. 


18Ci  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

watch  the  many  kinds  of  birds  in  your  neighborhood, 
and  see  how  they  catch  their  food.  The  scissor-tails 
capture  the  insects  that  fly  during  the  day.  At  night 
the  whippoorwills  and  night-hawks  begin  to  fly,  and 
catch  the  insects  that  the  day-flying  birds  miss.  Some 
kinds  of  birds,  Uke  the  wren  and  vireos,  go  carefully  from 
leaf  to  leaf,  looking  for  the  small,  half-hidden  insects 
on  the  under  sides.  Still,  again,  the  busy  woodpecker 
goes  over  the  bark  looking  for  insect  eggs  and  larvae, 
or  boring  for  ants  and  wood-worms.  Other  birds,  like 
the  larks  and  sparrows,  scan  the  ground  for  creeping 
insects,  while  still  others,  with  long  legs  and  bills,  go  to 
the  bottom  of  the  pool  for  the  little  swimmers  that  are 
seemingly  safe  from  molestation. 

254a.  If  a  bird  eats  on  an  average  one  hundred  insects  a  day, 
and  there  are  three  birds  to  every  acre  of  land,  how  many  insects 
will  they  eat  in  a  year?  How  many  insects  would  they  take  from 
the  largest  orchard  in  the  neighborhood? 

254b.  A  quail  was  found  to  have  10,000  weed  and  grass  seeds 
in  the  craw  when  killed.  If  each  quail  in  a  covey  of  fifteen  should 
destroy  this  many  weed  seeds  daily  for  a  year,  how  many  weeds 
would  be  destroyed? 

255.  Change  of  Feeding  Habits  in  Migration.  Some 
birds  that  spend  a  part  of  a  season  in  one  part  of  the 
country,  and  the  other  in  a  distant  section,  change 
their  feeding  habits.  A  good  illustration  is  the  bobolink, 
or  rice  bird.  It  breeds  in  the  North,  and  feeds  largely 
on  insects,  and  but  slightly  on  grain.  In  the  South  it  is 
called  "rice  bird"  because  it  prefers  the  rice  field, 
where  50  to  80  per  cent  of  its  food  is  rice. 

256.  Bird-houses.  Instead  of  shooting  at  birds, 
and  throwing  stones  to  scare  them,  we  should  encourage 
the  useful  birds  to  build  their  nests  around  the  barns 
and  in  the  orchards.    Many  persons  build  houses  to 


Wild  Birds  and  Other  Insect-eating  Animals    187 

attract  martins  and  sparrows.  A  simple  house  may  be 
made  with  old  tin  cans,  as  shown  in  Fig.  121,  using  a 
board  for  a  roof,  and  allowing  part  of  the  top  of  the  can 


Fig.  121.    A  good  way  to  use  tin  cans, 

to  remain,  to  make  a  lighting  place.    A  good  house  for 
martins  is  shown  in  Fig.  122. 

257.  Other  Animals  that  Destroy  Insects.  ''Horned 
frogs"  (though  they  are  really  horned  lizards)  and 
common  toads  live  on  insects,  as,  also,  do  most  snakes. 
Even  the  old  chicken  snakes  make  way  with  many  times 
more  rats  and  mice  than  they  do  with  young  chickens. 


Fig.  122.    A  simple  martin  house. 


Fig.  123.  Side,  front  and  rear  view  of  Hereford  cow,  "  Lady  Briton  16.' 


PART  11 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
ANIMAL    HUSBANDRY 

258.  Utilizing  Farm  Crops.  The  farmer  grows  grass, 
alfalfa,  grains,  cotton,  fruits  and  other  crops  which  he 
desires  to  convert  into  money.  There  are  two  ways  of 
marketing  the  surplus  feeds  grown  on  the  farm:  (1)  The 
crops  may  be  sold  to  other  persons  to  be  fed  to  stock, 
or  (2)  they  may  be  fed  to  animals  on  the  farm  where 
they  are  produced  and  worked  up  into  a  variety  of 
products  of  less  weight  and  bulk,  as  beef,  pork,  poultry, 
eggs,  milk,  horses,  mules,  cows,  etc.  These  finished 
products  may  often  be  marketed  for  much  more  than 
could  be  secured  for  the  feed  alone.  And,  in  addition, 
there  will  be  retained  on  the  farm  much  of  the  fertility, 
in  the  feeds,  for  the  benefit  of  succeeding  crops. 

258|.  Good  Live  Stock  and  Good  Pastures  should  be 
a  feature  of  most  farms.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  in 
states  having  the  largest  number  of  live  stock  on  the 
farms  that  the  average  earnings  of  such  farms  are  usually 
greater  than  in  states  where  the  care  of  live  stock  is  not 
an  important  part  of  the  farmer's  work. 

259.  The  Farm  is  a  Factory  where  the  plant  and 
animal  products  are  made  from  the  crude  substances 
of  the  air  and  soil.  It  is  just  as  necessary  to  keep  the 
soil  able  to  sustain  large  yields  as  to  keep  the  machinery 
in  the  mills  in  good  working  order.     The  wealth-pro- 

C189) 


190  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

ducing  power  of  the  farm  lies  in  the  productiveness  of 
the  soils.  It  costs  something  every  year  to  restore  to 
the  soil  the  power  to  make  a  large  yield  of  wheat  (see 
^lll),  but  it  costs  more  to  grow  wheat  on  land  that 
averages  only  half-crops  during  the  life  of  a  farmer. 

260.  The  Cost  of  Manufacture  and  the  value  of  the 
feeds  should  be  counted  against  the  value  of  the  prod- 
ucts. The  value  of  a  product  is  determined  by  its  kind, 
the  supply  offered  at  a  given  time,  and  the  demand. 

261.  Animal  Husbandry  is  the  natural  companion 
of  crop  farming.  When  the  products  of  the  fields  and 
meadows  are  removed  from  the  farm  each  year,  there 
is  a  continual  loss  of  fertility,  which  leads  to  certain 
poverty  of  the  farm  and  farmer.  When  these  are  fed 
to  the  stock  on  the  farm  much  of  the  fertility  in  the 
crops  may  be  returned  to  the  land. 

262.  Stock  Farming  varies  and  distributes  the  farm- 
er's labor.  It  gives  him  opportunity  to  work  every  day 
in  the  year  by  which  he  may  earn  something  for  his 
family.  An  all-grain  crop  or  hay  crop,  or  cotton  crop, 
etc.,  overtaxes  the  farm  labor  in  one  season  and  leaves 
it  in  comparative  idleness  the  next.  Stock  farming  en- 
courages system  in  rotation  of  crops,  and  thus  tends 
to  maintain  the  land  in  a  high  state  of  productiveness. 

263.  In  Selecting  Animals  for  the  Farm,  the  farmer 
should  use  just  as  good  judgment  as  the  manufacturer 
does  in  buying  machinery,  for  the  stock  is  the  machinery 
that  makes  the  crude  products  of  the  farm  into  salable 
products.  The  machines  used  in  manufacturing  have 
been  greatly  improved  to  cheapen  production  in  special 
lines.  What  shall  be  the  character  of  the  machines  which 
the  farmer  uses  to  convert  his  feeds  into  finished  prod- 
ucts?   Shall   it   be  the   latest  improved, — by  years  of 


DAILY  ICELK  AND  PEED  BECOKD  FOB  MONTHS 

0,niFr  n/  Herd, .     ^9::C:^..<S^r^^x^ii^t^ - -;  i'ost  Office,    /I 


Fig.  124.    Record  of  five  cows  for  one  month.    Is  the  profit  above  cost  of  feed 
Bxifficient  to  pay  for  care  ?    Records  furnished  by  Prof.  C.  O.  Moser . 


192  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

breeding  and  selecting,  to  secure  a  breed  that  will  give 
a  larger  or  more  valuable  return  in  meat,  butter,  eggs, 
wool,  etc.,  for  each  pound  of  feed  supplied? 

264.  Many  Animals  Are  Unsuited  for  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  kept.  The  Illinois  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  made  individual  records  for  a  full 
year  of  the  butter  produced  by  554  cows  in  Illinois 
dairies.  The  average  for  the  139  poorest  was  133.5 
pounds  of  butter-fat  and  for  the  139  best,  301  pounds, 
or  an  average  difference  of  167.5  pounds  butter-fat  per 
year.    At  25  cents  per  pound  this  is  $41.87  per  cow. 

264a.  Figure  the  gross  and  net  returns  per  year  to  the  dairy- 
man for  labor  and  interest  on  the  investment  for  each  of  the  above 
groups  of  cows.  Allow  $30  per  year  for  the  cost  of  feed  for  each 
cow,  and  25  cents  per  pound  for  butter-fat.  The  cows  were  valued 
at  $50  each.   Were  they  all  worth  this  much? 

265.  Records  of  Individual  Performance  should  be 
made  of  cows,  hens,  etc.,  to  determine  the  cost  of  keep- 
ing and  the  returns  of  the  farmer.  By  this  means  the 
profitable  animals  may  be  recognized,  as  also  the  unprofi- 
table ones.  The  latter  should  be  discarded.  The  farmer 
may,  by  attention  to  these  matters,  learn  that  some 
animals  are  being  fed  at  a  loss.    (Study  Fig.  124.) 

265a.  Milk  and  Butter  Records.  Secure  records  of  the  amount 
of  milk,  aiwi  amount  of  butter,  from  cows  in  the  neighborhood  for 
a  single  week.  Calculate  the  value  of  the  product  at  current  prices. 
Count  the  amount  and  cost  of  the  feed  consumed.  Determine  the 
returns  for  labor,  etc.   (See  Fig.  124  and  11352.) 

265b.  Growth  of  Pigs.  Weigh  a  weaned  pig  once  a  week  for 
four  weeks,  and  calculate  the  daily  gain  in  weight.  Allow  for  cost 
of  feed  and  calculate  the  cost  per  pound  gain.  Market  prices  may 
be  secured  from  the  daily  papers. 

265c.  Record  of  Loretta  D.  (see  Fig.  131),  the  champion  "best 
cow  of  any  breed"  for  economical  butter-production  in  the  dairy 
test  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  in  a  120-day  test  was,  average  daily 


Animal  Husbandry 


193 


flow  of  milk  48.35  pounds,  containing  2.33  pounds  of  actual  butter- 
fat  (equal  to  2.75  pounds  of  standard  quality  butter).  The  cost  of 
her  feed  was  twenty-five  cents  per  day.  Calculate  the  value  of  the 
milk  and  butter  for  ten  months. 

265d.  Record  of  Colantha  4th's  Johanna  (see  Fig.  125),  in  a 
year  test  completed  December  24,  1907,  was  27,432  poimds  milk, 
yielding  998  pounds  of  butter-fat.  This  is  the  world's  record,  both 
for  milk  and  butter,  for  any  cow  of  any  breed.  What  would  be 
the  value  of  her  milk  and  butter  at  current  prices? 

BREEDS    OF    LIVE-STOCK 

266.  What  Constitutes  a  Breed?  Breed,  as  applied  to 
live-stock,  corresponds  to  variety  in  cultivated   plants. 


Days 


1 

7 

30 

60 

365 


Fig.  125.    A  famous  Holstein,  Colantha  4th's  Johanna 
Record  of  Colantha  4th's  Johanna. 


Time 


Feb.  6,  1907 

Feb.  6  to  12 

Jan.  21  to  Feb.  20 

Dec.  27  to  Feb.  25 

Dec.  24,  '06  to  Dec,  '07 


Milk 

Butter-fat 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Total 

100.8 

3.96 

3.99 

651.7 

4.37 

28.17 

2,873.6 

3.86 

110.83 

5,326.7 

3.91 

208.39 

27,432.5 



998.25 

Estimated 
butter 


4.65 

32.86 

129.30 

243.12 

1,165.00 


194  Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 

The  various  breeds  of  poultry,  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  etc., 
descended  from  a  common  stock.  The  differences  which 
we  recognize  in  the  breeds  are  the  result  of  continued 
selections. 

267.  Origin  of  Breeds.  Man  long  ago  recognized 
differences  in  the  ability  of  individual  animals  to  con- 
vert their  food  into  milk,  wool,  feathers,  eggs,  etc. 
Therefore  we  select  animals,  not  so  much  for  their 
ability  to  endure  hardships,  but  for  their  power  to  pro- 
duce something  in  response  to  care.  Continued  selection 
has  produced  breeds  of  animals  having  certain  charac- 
ters strongly  developed.  They  are  called  ''special-pur- 
pose breeds." 

Many  persons  are  content  to  perpetuate  animals 
having  merely  the  form  and  color  markings  of  the  breed 
or  strain.  Intelligent  breeders,  however,  while  trying 
to  preserve  the  obvious  features  in  color  and  bodily  form 
that  belong  to  the  breed  or  strain  in  which  they  may  be 
interested,  also  give  close  attention  to  habits  and  records 
of  performance.  Of  two  animals  receiving  the  same  feed 
and  care,  one  may  gain  more  than  another.  Or,  again, 
of  two  animals  having  the  same  weight,  as  dairy  cows, 
one  may  consume  more  feed,  with  a  corresponding 
increase  in  products.  There  are  many  cows  that  may 
consume  less  feed  than  Loretta  D,  and  still  require  more 
feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  milk  or  butter. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 

268.  The  Beef  Types  are  distinguished  by  their 
ability  to  lay  on  large  amounts  of  flesh.  Their  bodies 
have  a  rounded  form,  with  strong  back  and  well-sprung 
ribs.    They  have  full  quarters,  straight  bottom  and  top 


uu 


^ 


i?J 


Fig.  126.   Outlines  of  shape  of  beef  cows  compared  with  parallelograms. 

lines  (see  Fig.  127),  and  a  tendency  to  develop  flesh  at 
an  early  age.  Careful  breeders  prefer  the  animal  that 
locates  a  large  amount  of  its  flesh  where  it  is  worth 
most,  i.  e.,  in  regions  supplying  the  valuable  cuts  of 
steak.  (See  Fig.  128.)  Animals  having  these  qualities 
so  fixed  by  repeated  selections  that  they  regularly 
appear  in  the  offspring,  belong  to  the  beef-breeds. 

269.  The   Shorthorn,   like  the  Herefords,   is  an  old 
English  breed.    The  shorthorns  adhere  closely  to  the 


r 

Fig,  127.   Outlines  of  shape  of  dairy  cows  compared  with  parallelograms. 
(195) 


196 


Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 


beef  type,  but  many  strains  are  good  milkers,  and  are 
classed  as  ''general  purpose"  animals.    They  are  of  very 

large  size,  the 
cows  often  rang- 
ing from  1,400 
to  2,000  pounds. 
The  horn  is 
short,  the  hind- 
quarters  are 
broad  and  well 
filled.  A  consid- 
erable range  of 
color  is  allowed 
in  the  shorthorns, — from  light  to  dark  red,  or  roan,  the 
latter  formed  by  a  mixture  of  red  and  white  hairs.  The 
Polled  Durhams  are  an  offshoot  of  the  Shorthorns.  (Fig. 
129.)  The  Shorthorn  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  beef 
breeds.    During  the  course   of  its   development   three 


Fig.  128.    Chicago  retail  dealers'  method  of 
cutting  beef, 


Fig.  129.   A  prize-winning  Polled  Durham,    liuby  of  Button  wood. 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle  197 

types  have  come  to  be  recognized — the  Bates,  Booth, 
and  Crookshanks,  or  Scotch  Shorthorns.  The  former 
two  are  EngUsh  in  origin  and  differ  from  each  other  in 
the  following  characters:  The  Bates  cattle  have  been 
bred  for  beauty  and  symmetry,  style  and  milking  quali- 
ties, while  in  the  Booth  strain  constitution,  wide  thick- 
fleshed  backs  and  length  of  quarters  have  been  empha- 


Fig.  130.   A  typical  Aberdeen  Angus. 

sized.  The  Crookshanks,  or  Scotch  strain,  are  low,  have 
blocky  forms  with  large  scale,  heavy  coats  of  hair,  and 
mature  quite  early. 

270.  The  Herefords  take  their  name  from  the  county 
of  Hereford,  England,  where  the  breed  originated.  They 
are  typically  a  beef  breed,  hardy,  early  maturing,  and 
well  suited  to  range  conditions.  In  milk-production 
they  are  very  poor.  The  red  body  color  and  white  face 
are  well-fixed  marks  for  the  breed.    (See  Fig.  123.) 


198    '        Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

271.  Aberdeen-Angus  derive  their  name  from  two 
counties  of  northern  Scotland.  They  are  polled  or 
hornless  and  noted  for  their  fine  beef  qualities.  Their 
place  as  a  range  breed  is  not  yet  established,  though 
as  feeders  they  have  many  friends.  The  body  is  very 
compact  and  more  cylindrical  than  that  of  either  Here- 
fords  or  Shorthorns.  The  legs  are  short  and  heavy.  Color 
is  nearly  always  black.  They  are  classed  as  medium 
milkers  among  beef  breeds.    (Fig.  130.) 

272.  Dairy  Types  are  noted  for  their  ability  to  pro- 
duce large  quantities  of  milk  and  butter,  instead  of  flesh. 
They  are  noticeable  for  their  long,  deep  couplings, 
triple  wedge-shaped  outlines,  due  to  their  clean-cut 
shoulders  and  broad,  deep  hind-quarters,  clean-cut  limbs, 
slender  necks  and  sharp  withers.  They  also  have  a  full 
barrel,  indicating  strong  constitution,  and  well-developed 
digestive  systems,  well-developed  udders,  and  a  capacity 
to  yield  a  quantity  of  milk  and  butter  on  moderate  feed. 
The  important  dairy  breeds  are  the  Jerseys,  Guernseys, 
Holstein-Friesian,  Ayrshires  and  Dutch  Belted. 

273.  The  Jerseys  and  the  Guernseys  are  natives  of 
the  islands  of  these  names  in  the  English  Channel. 
The  typical  color  for  the  Jersey  breed  is  described  as 
fawn,  gray,  and  silvery  fawn.  White  marks  are  not 
infrequent.  The  tongues  and  switch  of  the  tail  are  typi- 
cally black  in  pure-bred  Jerseys.  In  conformation,  the 
Jersey  adheres  strictly  to  the  dairy-type  characteristics. 
The  weight  of  the  cows  averages  between  650  and  850 
pounds.  Their  milk  is  noted  for  its  richness  in  butter-fat, 
a  fair  average  being  close  to  4.5  per  cent  fat  in  the  milk. 
As  a  beef  producer,  the  Jersey  is  very  poor.  A  number 
of  famous  Jerseys  have  records  ranging  from  700  to 
1,000  pounds  of  butter  in  a  single  year. 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle 


199 


Fig.  131.   Loretta  D.    A  Jersey  cow  with  a  good  form  and  a  good  record. 
Official  Milk,  Fat  and  Butter  Yields  of  Loretta  D, 


From 

Milk 

Fat 

Estim'd  butter* 

Days 

Total 

Daily 
average 

Total 

Daily 
average 

Total 

Daily 
average 

120 
30 

7 
1 

June  16-Oct.  13.  . . 
Aug.  28-Sept.  26  . . 
Sept.  17-Sept.  23  . . 
Aug.  13 

Lbs. 
5,802.7 
1,442.8 
335.2 
50.65 

Lbs. 
48.35 
48.09 
47.90 

Lbs. 

280.16 

73.68 

17.67 

3.13 

Lbs. 
2.33 
2.45 
2.52 

Lbs. 

330.03 

86.94 

20.85 

3.71 

Lbs. 
2.75 
2.90 
2.98 

274.  The  Holstein-Friesian,  or  simply  Friesian,  as 
they  are  called  in  their  native  country,  Holland,  is  a 
splendid  dairy  type  with  large  frame.   The  color  is  black 

*  In  calculating  the  amount  of  commercial  butter,  add  one-sixth  to  the  net 
butter-fat,  to  allow  for  the  moisture  in  the  butter. 


200 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


Points  and  Measurements  to  Be  Observed  in  Judging  Cattle 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 

27. 

28. 


29. 
30. 
31. 

32. 


Mouth. 

Lips. 

Nostrils. 

Muzzle. 

Face,  from  muzzle  to  poll. 

Forehead,     from     eyes     to 
poll. 

Eye. 

Cheek,  side  of  head  below 

Jaw.  [eye. 

Throat. 

Brains. 

Ear. 

Poll,  top  of  head. 

Horns. 

Neck. 

Neck,  lateral  view. 

Breast  or  bosom,   front  of 
chest. 

Fore  flank,  rear  of  arm. 

Dewlap,  loose  skin,  under- 
neath the  throat. 

Brisket,  point  of  chest. 

Withers,  top  of  shoulders. 

Shoulder  point. 

Neck  or  collar  depression  in 

Elbow.  [front. 

Arm. 

Fore    arm,    portion    of  leg 
between  elbow  and  knee. 

Knee. 

Cannon  or  shank-bone,  be- 
tween knee  and  ankle  in 
fore-  or  hind-leg. 

Hoof. 

Spinal    column,    backbone. 

Barrel  or  coupling,  middle- 
piece. 

Loin,   muscle  covering  the 
short  ribs. 


33.  Hooks  or  hips. 

34.  Crops,     depression     behind 

shoulder. 

35.  Fore-ribs. 

36.  Girth  at  flank. 

37.  Chest  cavity. 

38.  Chine,  between  withers  and 

loin. 

39.  False  or  floating  ribs. 

40.  Belly. 

41.  Milk- veins,     branched    and 

tortuous  ducts  running 
forward  beneath  the 
barrel. 

42.  Orifices  through  which  the 

milk  veins  enter  the  ab- 
dominal walls. 

43.  Midribs. 

44.  Abdominal    depth,    indicat- 

ing digestion  and  consti- 
tution. 

45.  Tail  head. 

46.  Pin  bones. 

47.  Escutcheon,    covered    with 

fine  hairs. 

48.  Buttocks. 

49.  Twist  where  hair  turns  on 

thigh. 

50.  Gaskin  or  lower  thigh. 

51.  Brush. 

52.  Thigh. 

53.  Stifle. 

54.  Flank. 

55.  Udder. 

56.  Teats. 

57.  Hock. 

58.  Navel  or  umbilicus. 

59.  Face. 

60.  Pelvic  arch  or  sacrum,  be- 

tween the  loin  and  crupper. 


A.  Width  of  forehead. 

B.  Length  of  neck. 

C.  Width  of  breast. 

D.  Length  from  pin  bones  to 

shoulder  point. 


Measurements. 

E.  Height  at  withers  and  hooks. 

F.  Girth  at  chest  and  navel. 

G.  Length  of  barrel  depression. 
H.  Width  of  hooks. 
K.  Length  of  hind-quarters. 


Fig.  132.  Points  and  measurements  to  be  observed  in  judging  cattle. 


202 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


and  white,  sometimes  the  white,  sometimes  the  black, 
prevaiUng.  In  quantity  of  milk  this  breed  excels  all 
others.  Colantha  4th's  Johanna  (Fig.  125)  is  credited 
with  27,432.5  pounds  of  milk  in  twelve  months,  which 
is  the  world's  record.  A  good  cow  is  expected  to  pro- 
duce from  7,000  to  9,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year. 
A  cow  that  does  not  produce  4,000  or  5,000  pounds 
of  milk  a  year  is  likely  to  be  unprofitable.    While  the 


Fig.  133.   "She  is  broad  on  top."    Courtesy  of  Department  of  Agricultural 
Extension,  University  of  Ohio. 

milk  from  Friesian  cows  is  not  so  rich  as  that  afforded 
by  the  Jerseys  and  the  Guernseys,  the  total  butter-fat 
is  equally  great. 

275.  Dual-purpose  Breeds  are  intermediate  between 
the  beef  and  dairy  types.  The  cows  afford  considerably 
more  milk  than  the  calves  can  use,  and  the  body  form 
is  such  that  they  dress  out  a  good  quality  of  beef. 
The  breeds  most  usually  classed  as  dual-purpose  ani- 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle  203 

mals  are  Red  Polls,  Brown  Swiss,  Shorthorn  and 
Ayrshires. 

276.  Judging  Cattle.  To  become  a  good  judge  of 
stock  one  should  study  to  find  out  the  form  and  habits 
that  represent  useful  qualities.  The  diagram  in  Fig.  132 
should  be  closely  studied,  with  two  or  three  animals  at 
hand  for  comparison,  in  training  the  judgment  on  the 
useful  points. 

Cattle  should  be  judged  for  the  use  that  is  to  be  made 
of  them.  Where  one  is  selecting  ''feeders,"  animals  hav- 
ing the  beef-type  conformation  will  be  more  profitable. 
The  person  who  has  studied  and  practiced  judging  beef 
cattle  will  be  able  to  quickly  recognize  the  animals  lack- 
ing in  depth  of  body,  quietness  of  disposition,  or  in  what 
the  butcher  calls  "quality,"  i,  e.,  fine  bone,  soft,  mellow 
hide,  and  silky  hair.  The  animal  with  long  legs,  shallow- 
ness in  depth  of  body  at  heart  girth,  and  light  in  flanks, 
will  rarely  make  a  good  feeder.  Likewise,  in  selecting 
dairy  cows,  one  comes  to  recognize  certain  habits  and 
peculiarities  of  conformation  that  distinguish  animals 
of  special  merit  for  dairy  purposes. 


CHAPTER  XXVIIl 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF   HORSES 

277.  Prehistoric  Horses.  The  skeletons  of  horses 
existing  in  prehistoric  times,  ages  and  ages  ago,  are 
found  in  western  North  America,  from  Texas  to  British 
Columbia,  also  in  England  and  France.  Some  of  these 
early  horses  had  toes.    The  little  horny  thickenings  of 


Fig.  134.  Prehistoric  horses.  To  show  increase  in  size.  A  and  B,  Early  forms; 
C,  a  later  and  larger  form,  about  four  and  one-half  hands  high;  D,  the 
"forest  horse."  Drawings  constructed  from  a  study  of  the  geologic 
remains,  by  Professor  Osborne 

(204) 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses 


205 


Fig.  135.  Trotting  stallion,  Cannon,  32,917.  The  first  sire  selected  for  \ise  in 
the  experiments  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  develop  an  American 
breed  of  carriage  horses. 

the  skin  just  above  the  knee  of  the  front  legs  (chestnuts) 
and  below  the  fetlock  of  the  hind  legs  (ergots)  are  marks 
of  the  toes  that  were  in  the  feet  of  the  prehistoric 
horses.  The  horses  which  we  have  now  are  thought  to 
have  descended  from  the  Old  World  stocks.    (Fig.  134.) 

278.  Valuable  Qualities  in  Horses.  The  horse  is 
invaluable  on  the  farm  or  in  the  city.  He  is  stout,  quick, 
intelligent,  and  more  faithful  than  any  other  animal 
used  for  bearing  burdens.  Horses  and  mules  are  neces- 
sary for  heavy  hauling  and  plowing.  Other  forms  of 
power  are  cheaper  or  more  desirable  in  many  cases,  but 
there  will  always  be  work  for  the  horse. 


206  Elernentary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

279.  *Horses  Should  Be  Selected  for  the  work  they 
are  to  do.  Different  kinds  of  work  require  different 
kinds  of  horses.  A  horse  is  of  no  particular  value  except 
for  what  he  can  do.  To  fulfil  his  mission  he  must  travel. 
If  he  can  draw  a  buggy  containing  one  or  two  persons 
at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  he  is  valuable  as  a  road- 
ster. Another  horse  that  can  draw  his  share  of  a  load 
weighing  upwards  of  a  ton,  even  though  he  moves 
slowly,  performs  an  equal  amount  of  actual  work,  and 
is  just  as  useful  to  his  owner  as  is  the  roadster.  Since  all 
horses  are  valuable  because  they  travel,  although  at 
various  rates  and  under  widely  varying  conditions, 
it  will  be  interesting  to  make  a  study  of  those  parts 
of  the  horse's  body  directly  connected  with  his  loco- 
motion. 

280.  Use  of  the  Muscles.  It  is  not  difficult  to  under- 
stand that,  with  the  horse  as  with  ourselves,  all  motion 
is  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  muscles.  About  40  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  ah  ordinary  horse  is  muscle.  All 
muscles  concerned  with  locomotion  are  attached  to 
bones,  and  when  they  contract  they  cause  the  bones  to 
which  they  are  fastened  to  move.  The  lower  part  of 
a  horse's  legs  are  nearly  all  bone,  but  the  muscles  in 
the  body  and  upper  part  of  the  limbs  are  attached  to 
various  parts  of  the  bony  construction  by  tendons, 
and  can  thus  produce  a  motion  of  the  parts  located 
some  distance  away.  When  contracted,  the  muscles 
we  are  discussing  are  about  three-quarters  as  long  as 
when  at  rest.  The  amount  of  motion  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  muscles  of,  say  one  of  the  horse's  legs, 
will  depend  upon  the  length  of  the  muscles  and  the 

*  Paragraphs  279  to  285  are  taken  by  permission  from  a  leaflet  on  '*  The 
Horse,"  by  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  published  by  the  Ohio  State  University. 


Front  view  of  front  legs.   A  shows  correct  conformation;  B  to  G, 
common  defects. 


f  tf  ft\ 


I 


L 


Side  view  of  front  legs.    A  shows  correct  conformation;  B,  foot  too 
far  back;  C,  too  far  forward;  D,  knee-sprung;  E,  knock-kneed. 


"^X 


\'.. 


\ 


0 


Side  view  of  hind  legs.   A  shows  correct  conformation; 
B  to  D,  common  defects. 


Rear  view  of  hind  legs.   A  shows  correct  conformation; 

B  to  E,  common  defects. 

Fig.  136.    Positions  of  horses'  legs,  while  standing.     After  Craig. 


208   '        Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

length  and  the  relation  of  the  bones  to  which  they  are 
attached.  The  common  idea  among  students  of  this 
subject  is  expressed  in  these  words,  ''Long  muscles  for 
speed,  short  muscles  for  power."  We  have  already  seen 
that  a  long  muscle  enables  a  horse  to  get  over  ground 
rapidly.  A  short  muscle,  however,  is  not  powerful 
because  it  is  short,  but  because  in  horses  constructed 
on  that  plan  the  muscles  are  thicker,  containing  more 
fibers,  all  of  which  pulling  together  when  contracted 
exert  a  much  greater  pulling  force  than  will  a  long,  and 
more  slender  muscle.  It  is  because  of  this  that  in  buying 
horses  to  draw  heavy  loads  we  look  for  large  and  heavy 
muscles,  while  in  roadsters  we  must  attach  importance 
to  the  length  of  the  muscles. 

281.  Muscles  of  « the  Hind-quarters.  The  most  of 
a  horse's  muscle  is  in  the  hind-quarters.  This  may  be 
a  surprise  to  you,  but  the  next  time  you  have  an  oppor- 
tunity to  see  a  horse  pulling  a  very  heavy  load,  study 
him  carefully.  You  will  be  impressed  with  the  idea 
that  most  of  the  work  is  being  done  with  the  hind  legs. 
When  the  hind  foot  is  moved  forward  the  toe  rests 
on  the  ground,  and  the  leg  is  bent  at  the  hock  joint; 
if  the  toe  does  not  slip,  and  the  horse  is  strong  enough 
for  his  load,  the  muscles  above,  pulling  on  the  tendon 
fastened  to  the  back  and  upper  point  of  the  hock",  will 
close  the  joint,  or,  in  other  words,  straighten  the  legs, 
and  cause  the  body  to  move  forward.  It  is  by  the  per- 
formance of  this  act  at  every  step  that  the  horse  moves, 
although,  of  course,  the  strain  on  all  the  parts  is  much 
greater  when  pulHng  very  hard.  This  will  also  show  the 
necessity  of  having  large,  broad,  straight  joints,  and 
legs  that  give  the  horse  the  most  secure  footing.  You 
have  probably  also  noticed  when  driving  that  many 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses  209 

horses  put  their  hind  foot  on  the  ground  in  front  of  the 
mark  left  by  the  fore  foot,  and  the  faster  they  go  the 
greater  will  be  the  distance  between  the  marks  made 
by  the  fore  and  the  hind  feet.  This  shows  that  the 
length  of  a  step  is  determined  by  the  hind-quarters; 
it  also  explains  the  need  of  large,  strong  hocks,  and  legs 
that  are  not  so  crooked  as  to  seem  weak,  or  so  straight 
as  to  lessen  the  leverage  afforded  by  this  very  wonder- 
ful arrangement  of  the  pares. 

282.  Body  Form.  Then  there  are  some  other  things 
that  are  desired  in  all  kinds  of  horses.  One  of  these  is 
a  short  back,  that  is,  short  from  the  hips  to  the  top  of 
the  shoulders  (the  withers).  From  what  we  have  learned 
of  the  hind  parts  we  know  that  the  horse  is  really  push- 
ing the  rest  of  his  body  along.  If  the  back  is  short  and 
strong,  instead  of  long  and  weak,  the  whole  body  will 
move  more  easily  and  rapidly  in  obedience  to  the  force 
produced  in  the  hind  parts. 

283.  The  Fore-legs.  Although  the  hind  parts  have 
most  to  do  with  the  horse's  traveling,  we  must  not  forget 
that  the  front  parts  are  also  very  important.  No  matter 
how  much  muscle  a  horse  has,  or  how  strong  his  hocks 
are,  if  there  is  anything  seriously  wrong  with  his  front 
legs,  he  cannot  travel,  and  so  derives  no  benefit  from  his 
good  parts.  Some  horses  may  be  seen  whose  knees  are 
not  straight,  others,  when  looked  at  from  in  front,  show 
that  their  feet  are  not  in  line  with  their  legs.  Such 
animals  are  more  likely  to  strike  one  leg  with  the  oppo- 
site foot,  thus  making  themselves  lame  and  unable  to 
do  any  work. 

284.  Horses'  Feet.  There  are  a  great  many  interest- 
ing things  about  a  horse  which  cannot  be  told  here, 
but  which  you  may  learn  at  home,  or  from  some  neighbor 

N 


210    -       Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

who  keeps  good  horses.  We  will,  however,  say  some- 
thing about  horses'  feet.  Inside  a  horse's  hoof  there 
are  some  very  sensitive  parts,  resembling  the  attach- 
ment of  the  finger-nail  to  the  finger.  When  anything 
gets  wrong  with  the  foot,  these  parts  cause  a  great  deal 
of  pain,  and  even  though  the  horse  is  otherwise  perfect, 
the  pain  in  his  feet  makes  him  too  lame  to  travel. 
Horses  with  large,  wide  feet,  that  are  wide  across  where 
they  touch  the  ground  when  you  look  at  them  from 
behind  (or  in  the  heels),  are  not  likely  to  have  this 
trouble. 

285.  Style  in  Horses.  Even  though  you  have  never 
studied  horses,  you  have  seen  some  that  impress  you 
as  being  more  beautiful  than  others.  No  matter  what 
kind  of  work  is  to  be  done,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  horse 
that  looks  well.  Of  course,  it  will  depend  upon  whether 
the  horse  is  thin  or  fat,  and  upon  the  grooming  he  has 
had,  but  you  will  usually  find  that  the  horses  which 
attract  you  have  rather  long  necks  that  rise  upward 
from  where  they  leave  the  body;  the  head,  too,  instead 
of  being  set  on  straight  up  and  down,  will  have  the  nose 
pointed  a  little  forward;  the  ears  will  be  rather  close 
together,  and  the  eyes  large  and  bright-looking. 

286.  The  Draft  Type  is  becoming  more  popular  wher- 
ever horses  are  used.  They  are  better  suited  to  farm 
work  and  the  heavy  hauling  of  large  cities.  Good  draft 
horses  have  large  size,  blocky  build,  short  legs,  broad 
backs  and  quiet  tempers.  Percherons,  Clydesdales, 
Enghsh  shires  and  Belgians  are  leading  representative 
breeds  of  the  draft  type. 

287.  The  Percheron  is  now  the  most  popular  draft 
breed  in  America.  They  are  docile,  intelligent,  active, 
and   have   excellent   feet;    are   heavy   in   weight,    and 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses 


211 


steady  pullers  under  load.  Typical  specimens  of  this 
breed  run  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high.  The  color 
is  generally  gray,  though  blacks  are  often  met. 


Fig.  137.  Percheron,  Medoc,  30,986.  First  in  class  at  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and 
Wisconsin  State  Fairs,  1903  ;  also  one  first  and  one  second  at  Chicago 
International,  1903. 

288.  The  Clydesdale  is  the  recognized  draft  breed 
of  Scotland,  taking  their  name  from  the  river  Clyde. 
Usually  they  have  smaller  bodies  and  longer  legs  than 
the  Percherons,  which  is  supposed  to  allow  more  action. 

289.  Coach  Types  are  sometimes  referred  to  as 
heavy  harness  horses.   The  most  popular  breeds  are  the 


212,,  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

Hackney,  or  English  Coach,  Cleveland  Bays,  French 
Coach  and  German  Coach. 

290.  Saddle  and  Driving  Horses   are  very   popular 
because  of  their  quick  action.   There  are  several  strains 


Fig.  138.    Clydesdale  mare,  Princess  Handsome.   Winner  of  first  prize  three 
years  in  succession  at  Chicago  International  Live-stock  Show. 

of  driving  horses,  all  derived  in  part  from  the  Arabian 
horses.  As  a  result  of  superior  breeding,  the  English 
thoroughbred  and  the  American  trotting  horses  have 
come  to  be  better  movers  than  the  original  Arabian 
stocks.  There  are  several  strains  of  the  American  trot- 
ting horses,  such  as  the  Hambeltonian,  the  Wilkes  and 
the  Morgans.  The  native  "Mustangs,"  found  in  western 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses 


213 


America  by  the  early  explorers,  are  supposed  to  be  the 
descendants  of  early  importations  made  during  the 
Spanish  conquest  of  Mexico. 


Fig.  139.   Hackney  horse.  Lord  Burleigh.   One  of  the  greatest  of  modem 
show  horses 

291.  Ponies.  Besides  the  ponies  owned  by  the  Indians 
of  America,  the  little  Shetland  island  horses  are  called 
ponies.  These  "Shetlands"  are  small  because  they  have 
been  forced  to  live  on  the  coarse  and  scant 
of  the  cold  regions  of  north  Scotland. 


214 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


292.  Judging  Horses.  Fig.  136  illustrates  the  proper 
and  improper  position  of  the  legs  of  horses.  In  study- 
ing horses  this  should  always  be  closely  observed.  Get 
two  horses  together  and  closely  contrast  the  various 
points.  Fig.  140  gives  the  names  in  common  use  for 
the  various  parts  of  a  horse. 


Fig.  140.   Typical  horse,  showing  names 


1.  Muzzle. 

2.  Nostril. 

3.  Forehead. 

4.  Cheek. 

5.  Temple. 

6.  Poll  or  nape  of  neck. 
7-7'.  Crest. 

8.  Neck. 

9.  Withers 

10.  Shoulder. 

11.  Point  of  shoulder. 

12.  Slant  of  shoulder. 

13.  Breast. 


14.  Elbow. 

15.  Fore-arm. 

16.  Knee. 

17-17'.  Cannon  bone. 
18-18'.  Fetlock. 
19-19'.  Pastern. 
20-20'.  Coronet. 

21.  Hoof. 

22.  Chestnut. 

23.  Ergot. 

24.  Splints. 

25.  Back. 

26.  Loins 


of  the  points. 

27.  Chest. 

28.  Flank. 

29.  Belly. 

30.  Tail  head. 

31.  Tail. 

32.  Croup. 

33.  Buttock. 

34.  Thigh. 

35.  stifle  joint. 

36.  Gaskin. 

37.  Hock. 

38.  Point  of  hock. 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses  215 

293.  Care  of  Horses.  Horses  are  intelligent  and 
nervous  animals,  and  should  be  handled  with  impas- 
sive judgment.  Your  treatment  should  convince 
him  that  you  are  his  friend,  as  well  as  his  master.  If 
a  horse  shies,  or  becomes  frightened,  soothe  and  encour- 
age him.  You  cannot  whip  terror  out  of  a  horse,  nor 
courage  into  one.  Before  you  check  a  horse's  head  into 
an  unnatural  position  try  it  on  yourself.  Read  ''Black 
Beauty,"  and  the  story  of  the  Bell  of  Justice  in  Long- 
fellow's poem,  "The  Bell  of  Atri,"  Horses  respond  to 
care  and  kind  treatment  more  quickly  and  decidedly 
than  any  other  domestic  animal,  unless  an  exception 
be  made  in  favor  of  the  dog. 

The  horse  has  a  small  stomach,  and  therefore  may 
not  take  in  large  quanities  of  feed  at  any  one  time  with- 
out injury.  The  feeding  of  horses,  for  this  reason,  should 
be  frequent  and  regular. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  HOGS 

294.  Some  Hogs  Should  Be  on  Every  Farm.  Hog  flesh 
may  be  produced  more  cheaply  than  other  kinds. 
There  is  very  httle  waste  in  a  hog  carcass,  because  they  are 
built  so  compactly.  Hogs  ''dress  out"  seventy  or  eighty- 
five  pounds  of  palatable  products  per  hundred  pounds 
hve  weight,  varying  according  to  the  condition  and 
kind  of  animal.  With  hogs,  meat-producing  quality 
is  the  valuable  feature  in  all  breeds.  We  consider  not 
only  the  gross  weight,  but  the  form  that  will  dress  out 
the  greatest  per  cent  of  high-priced  cuts,  and  a  small 
per  cent  of  waste. 

295.  Food  of  Hogs.  The  hog  will  ^at  many  kinds  of 
slops  and  waste  products  that  no  other  animal  will.  A 
range  or  pasture,  clean,  roomy  pens,  and  some  grain 
feed,  with  shelter  for  hot  or  extreme  cold  weather,  are 
necessary  to  keep  hogs  healthy  and  growing.  Some  pas- 
ture  should   always  be    provided   for   hogs   in  winter 


Fig.  141.   CJomparative  values  of  the  different  cuts  as  used  by  the  retail 
butchers  of  Chicago. 

(216) 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Hogs  217 

and  summer.    Oats,  rye  and  wheat  make  good  winter 
pasturage. 

296.  Lard  Hogs.  The  hogs  with  large,  spreading 
hams  and  shoulders,  short  bodies  and  broad  backs, 
thick  neck  and  jowls,  with  deep  layers  that  contain  a 
large  amount  of  lard-bearing  tissue  as  compared  with 
the  lean  cuts,  are  called  lard  hogs.  The  Poland-Chinas, 
Berkshire,  Duroc-Jerseys  and  Chester- Whites  belong 
to  this  class. 

297.  Bacon  Hogs  are  long  in  body,  deep  in  sides, 
with  comparatively  narrow  back,  narrow,  light  hams 


Fig.  142.  Three  representative  Duroc-Jeraeya. 

and  shoulders,  and  light,  muscular  neck.  They  lack 
the  deep  layers  of  fatty  tissue  found  in  the  lard  hogs. 
They  have  a  strong  muscular  development,  and  hence 
dress  out  a  large  percentage  of  lean  meat.  Bacon  hogs 
furnish  a  large  proportion  of  the  expensive  cuts,  such  as 
choice  hams  and  breakfast  bacons.  The  Yorkshires  and 
Tamworths  are  the  leading  breeds  belonging  to  this 
class. 

298.  Duroc- Jersey.  The  Duroc-Jersey  breed  has  prob- 
ably descended  from  several  strains  of  red  hogs.  The 
hair  is  coarse,  and  ears  lopped  forward.    The  back  is 


218 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


Fig.  143.  Three  representative  Poland-Chinas. 

short,  slightly  arched,  and  supports  a  broad,  well- 
rounded  body.  The  shoulders  and  hams  are  very  heavy 
and  thick-fleshed.  Duroc-Jerseys  are  splendid  feeders 
and  good  grazers  and  are  justly  popular  in  all  sections. 
299.  The  Poland-China  breed  is  a  native  of  Ohio. 
The  color  is  black,  with  white  points  on  feet  and  head. 
The  ears  are  lopped,  jowls  are  large,  and  the  back  has 
a  gradual  yet  moderate  arch  the  entire  length.  The 
body  is  shorter,  but  more  spreading  than  in  the  Berk- 
shire. As  a  rule,  the  sides  and  hams  contain  a  smaller 
percentage  of  lean  meat  than  the  Berkshires.  The  pigs 
of  this  breed  mature  early,  and  as  feeders  under  confine- 
ment, are  rated  among  the  best,  and  are  especially  liked 


^^^^fc 


K.J  h-* 


Fig.  144.  Three  representative  Berkshires. 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Hogs 


219 


in  the  corn-belt  states.    They  are  typically  represen- 
tative of  the  lard-hog  type. 

300.  Berkshires  take  their  names  from  a  shire,  or 
county,  of  England.  Berkshires  have  erect  ears,  a  black 
body,  generally  with  a  white  streak  in  the  face,  or  jowl, 
and  four  white  feet.  The  back  of  the  Berkshires  is  nearly 
straight,  with  moderate  breadth.  The  barrel  is  long, 
with  slightly  arched  ribs  and  deep  sides.  They  are  strong 
and  active  and  are  good  grazers.  The  Berkshire  is  a 
good  feeder  and  affords  a  good  quantity  of  bacon. 


Fig.  145.   Three  representative  Tamworths. 

301.  Tamworth.  The  native  home  of  the  Tamworth 
breed  is  in  the  counties  of  central  England.  They  are 
typical  of  the  bacon  type  of  hog,  so  popular  in  some  sec- 
tions of  England  and  Canada.  With  the  increasing  high 
prices  for  fancy  bacon,  they  are  becoming  more  widely 
recognized  than  ever  before.  The  color  is  red.  The  back 
is  long,  while  the  sides  are  moderately  deep  and  contain 
a  large  amount  of  ''streak-o'-leah"  bacon.  The  hams 
and  shoulders  are  without  the  large  amount  of  external 
fat  so  noticeably  present  in  Poland-Chinas  and  Duroc- 
Jerseys. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF   SHEEP  AND  GOATS 

302.  Uses.  Sheep  and  goats  are  valued  for  wool  and 
mutton.  In  some  countries  goats  are  kept  not  only 
for  mutton  and  hair,  but  to  supply  milk.  Sheep  and 
goats  are  great  grazers.  They  will  make  more  out  of  a 
pasture  than  any  other  class  of  animal,  consuming 
not  only  the  grass,  but  also  many  of  the  weeds  and  leaves 
of  shrubs.  Sheep  are  grown  in  large  herds  in  the  west- 
ern states,  primarily  for  wool.  In  recent  years  many 
farmers  in  the  South  have  found  small  flocks  of  sheep 
or  goats  valuable  additions  to  the  stock  of  their  farms. 

303.  The  Wool  produced  by  the  different  breeds 
differs  much  in  quantity,  quality  and  character.  In 
some  strains  of  the  Merinos  the  clip  of  wool  may  equal 
one-fourth  or  even  one-third  of  the  animal's  gross  weight. 
The  wool  is  much  less  in  the  mutton  breeds.  The  breeds 


Rg.  146.  Merino  sheep.  Champion  flock  at  St.  Louis  Fair,  Illinois  State  Fair, 
and  Charleston,  S.  C,  Exposition,  1902. 

(220) 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep  and  Goats  221 

are  usually  divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  the 
length  of  the  wool.  The  long-wooled  breeds  are  repre- 
sented  by  the  Lincoln,  Leicester  and   Cotswold,  while 


Fig.  147.  Grand  champion  car-load  of  mutton  sheep.  Chicago  International 
Exposition,  1901. 

the  short-wooled  class  includes  the  Southdown,  Shrop- 
shire and  Cheviot.  The  fine-wooled  breeds  are  repre- 
sented by  the  Uambouillet  or  French  Merino,  and 
Delaines  or  Spanish  Merino.  The  fineness,  as  well  as 
length  of  staple,  is  an  important  quality  in  wools. 
Dense  fleeces,  referring  to  the  number  of  fibers  per 
square  inch,  are  desired  by  both  the  manufacturers 
and  the  sheep  breeders.  The  dense  fleeces  afford  more 
protection  to  the  body,  and  deteriorate  less  from  expos- 
ure to  the  rain,  cold  and  dirt  than  the  thin  fleeces. 

304.  The  Merino  Breeds  have  descended  from  old 
Spanish  stocks.  They  represent  the  highest  type  of 
wool  producer.  The  fleece  is  fine,  dense  on  the  body, 
and  uniform  in  length.  The  oil,  or  yolk,  on  the  fleece 
causes  the  wool  to  catch  a  great  deal  of  dirt  on  the  outer 
layers,  giving  the  animal  a  dark  color.  The  Merinos 
are  hardy,  healthy  and  excellent  foragers.  They  thrive 
even  when  the  range  is  poor. 


222  '         Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

305.  Mutton  Breeds.  The  mutton  qualities  in  sheep 
correspond  to  the  same  set  of  characters  associated  with 
the  beef  breeds  of  cattle.  (See  H  268.)  Sheep  dress  out  from 
50  to  60  per  cent  of  their  live  weight  in  marketable  prod- 


Fig.  148.   A  famous  Angora  goat. 

ucts.  The  leg,  rib  and  loin  cuts  include  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  total  weight,  and  over  90  per  cent  of  the 
value.  Thus  it  is  plain  that  a  good  mutton  sheep  means 
one  with  a  blocky  form,  full,  heavy  legs,  deep  body,  level, 
broad  back,  and  short  head  and  neck. 

306.  Goats.    Goats  are  natural  browsers,   and   not 


Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep  and  Goats  223 

grazers.  They  prefer  the  slender  tips  and  twigs  of  young 
trees  to  grass,  and  on  this  account  are  often  used  to 
keep  down  the  underbush  in  pastures.  In  the  Southwest 
they  find  a  cUmate  well  suited  to  their  habits.  The  fibers 
of  the  fleece  are  very  long  and  some  coarser  than  fine 
wool.  The  fleece  of  the  Angora  goats  is  known  as  mohair. 
Milking  breeds  of  goats  have  been  highly  developed  in 
some  countries.  In  the  island  of  Malta  the  inhabitants 
depend  very  largely  on  goats  for  supplies  of  milk  and 
butter.  Milking-goats  have  been  bred  for  centuries 
in  Switzerland.  Fine  specimens  give  from  four  to  seven 
quarts  of  milk  a  day. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
FARM  POULTRY 

307.  Poultry  Should  be  Raised  at  Every  Home.  Only 
a  small  outlay  of  capital  is  required  to  establish  a  pay- 
ing poultry  business.  The  natural  food  of  nearly  all 
members  of  the  bird  family  is  largely  insects,  small 
animals  and  fish.  The  eggs  of  all  sorts  of  poultry  are 
a  rich,  nutritious  food.  Ducks  and  geese  produce  a  fine 
quality  of  feathers  as  well  as  eggs  for  food. 

308.  Hatching  and  Rearing  Poultry.  The  growth  of 
the  germ  in  the  egg  begins  at  a  temperature  just  a  little 
below  that  of  the  bird's  body.  The  temperature  of  the 
blood  in  chickens  is  given  as  107.6°  Fahr.  or  42°  C.  In 
the  brooding  season  the  small  blood-vessels  on  the 
breast  of  the  chicken  become  more  prominent.  The 
time  required  to  hatch,  called  the  period  of  incubation, 
will  vary  with  the  freshness  of  the  eggs  and  the  kind 
of  birds.  The  period  of  incubation  for  several  kinds  of 
birds  is  as  follows: 

Canary  bird 14  days 

Pigeon 18  days 

Chicken 21  days 

Guinea 25  days 

Duck,  geese  and  peacock    28  days 

Turkey 28  days 

309.  Artificial  Incubation.  Artificial  incubation  is 
a  very  old  practice  in  some  countries.  Incubators 
have  -become  common   in  recent  years  wherever  much 

(224) 


Farm  Poultry 


225 


attention  is  given  to  the  raising  of  poultry.  It  costs  a 
great  deal  less  to  hatch,  say,  one  hundred  eggs  artifici- 
ally than  it  does  to  feed  seven  or  eight  hens.  The  addi- 
tional advantage  claimed  for  the  incubator  is  that  the 


Fig.  149.    A  modem  incubator. 


hens  soon  begin  laying,  and  that  the  chickens  can  be  more 
easily  cared  f6r  in  brooders.  There  are  two  classes  of 
incubators  on  the  market, — the  water -heated  and  the 
dry-heated.   (Fig.  149.) 

310.  Poultry-Houses  and  Grounds.  Poultry -houses 
and  yards  should  be  located  on  well-drained,  and,  pref- 
erably, on  loose,  sandy  soils.  They  should  be  cleaned 
regularly   to   prevent   the   accumulation   of   filth   that 


226^ 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


might  harbor  disease-producing  germs  and  parasites. 
The  Utter  in  the  nests  should  be  changed  often.  A  dust 
box  should  be  in  every  poultry-yard.  The  poultry-house 
may  be  simple  in  our  climate,  providing  only  a  good 
coop,  with  the  north  and  west  sides  closed,  leaving 
the  south  wall  partly  open.  The  perches  and  nests 
should  not  be  very  high.   (Fig.  150.) 


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Fig.  150.   A  simple  poultry  house. 

311.  Feeding  Poultry.  The  natural  food  of  all  domes- 
ticated  fowls,  and,  in  fact,  of  nearly  all  birds,  consists 
of  insects,  seeds  and  grasses.  They  require  plenty  of 
nitrogenous  feeds,  like  insects,  meat  scraps,  etc.  For 
confined  fowls,  cottonseed  meal,  milk,  or  the  tankage 
from  the  slaughter-house,  make  an  excellent  substitute 
for  the  animal  feeds.  Any  of  the  grains  may  be  fed  to 
poultry.  Green  feed  is  very  desirable  for  laying  hens. 
All  birds  require  grit  to  assist  in  the  grinding  of  the  feed 
in  the  gizzard.    Coarse,  sharp  sand,  crushed  stone,  or 


Farm  Poultry 


227 


cinders,  etc.,  are  desirable  forms  of  grit.  Crushed  oyster- 
shells,  or  bones,  supply  the  material  for  making  the 
bones  in  young  growing  chickens  and  the  egg-shells  for 
laying  hens. 

312.  Improving  Poultry.  To  improve  a  breed  or 
flock  of  poultry,  use  the  eggs  from  the  individuals  hav- 
ing the  desired  characters.  In  breeding  for  increased 
egg-production,  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  a  hen  in 
a  year  is  of  far  more  importance  than  the  color  of  the 
feathers.  A  hen  lay- 
ing 200  or  more  eggs 
a  year  is  worth  many 
times  more  than  one 
laying  from  30  to  50. 
There  are  many  poor 
layers  in  all  flocks. 
By  using  trap-nests 
for  a  full -year  test 
the  Maine  Experiment 
Station  found  that  in  a  number  of  spring  pullets  all  bred 
pure  to  type,  only  3  laid  Aiore  than  200  eggs;  10  laid 
175  to  200;  11  laid  150  to  174,  and  so  on  down;  11  laid 
75  to  100;  6  laid  50  to  75,  and  5  laid  36  to  49. 

In  the  development  of  the  breeds  of  poultry,  much 
attention  has  been  given  to  perpetuating  the  color  and 
character  of  the  feathers,  combs,  wattles,  etc.  In  recent 
years,  greater  efforts  have  been  made  to  strengthen  the 
more  important  qualities,  such  as  regularity  and  fre- 
quency of  laying,  early  maturity  and  other  qualities, 
depending  on  the  kind  of  poultry. 

313.  Preserving  Eggs.  Eggs  decay  as  the  result  of 
the  growth  of  germs  in  the  rich  substances  of  the  egg. 
Warm   temperatures    favor    the  rapid  development  of 


Fig.  151.   A  home-made  trap-nest. 


228 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


the  germs,  hence  eggs  decay  much  faster  in  the  summer. 
Just  how  the  germ  makes  its  entrance  through  the  shell 
is  not  fully  understood.  Of  the  many  kinds  of  egg-pre- 
servatives, none  are  so  satisfactory  as  sodium  siUcate, 
commonly  called  "water-glass."  The  eggs  may  be  packed 
away  in  a  solution  of  about  one  part  of  water-glass  to 


Fig.  152.   White  Leghorns — popular  representatives  of  the  egg-laying, 
or  Mediterranean  class. 

twelve  parts  of  clean  boiled  water  and  kept  as  long 
as  desired.  A  mixture  of  salty  lime-water  is  often  used. 
In  either  case,  the  egg-shell  should  be  punctured  with 
a  needle  before  boiling  to  prevent  the  shells  cracking 
when  placed  in  hot  water. 


Farm  Poultry  229 

314.  Classes  of  Poultry.  There  are  many  classes  and 
breeds  of  poultry,  such  as  chickens,  turkeys,  ducks, 
geese,  guineas,  pigeons  and  peacocks.  Some  are  raised 
largely  for  eggs,  others  for  meat  or  feathers,  and  others 
still  to  satisfy  a  fancy.  There  are  two  well-marked 
types  of  chickens, — the  laying  type  and  the  meat  type. 
A  combination  of  the  two  gives  the  general-purpose  type. 

315.  Egg  Breeds.  The  so-called  egg  breeds  are  natives 
of  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean  sea.  They 
are  of  medium  size,  good  layers,  but  often  poor  sitters 
when  young.  They  are  easily  frightened,  very  hardy, 
active  and  make  good  foragers.  The  most  popular  rep- 
resentatives of  this  class  are  the  Leghorns,  Minorcas  and 
Hamburgs. 

316.  The  Meat 
Breeds  are  na- 
tives of  Asia, 
hence  are  some- 
times called  the 
Asiatic  breeds. 
They  are  large, 
heavy  bodied, 
slow  moving, 
having  a  gentle 
disposition,  and 
are  persistent 
sitters  and  good 
mothers.  The}^ 
are  generally 
considered  poor 
layers,    though 

the      pullets     are        pig.  153.   a  Light  Brahma  cockerel.  Typical  repre- 
often        excellent  sentatlve  of  the  Asiatic  class. 


230    ,       Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

layers.  They  are  especially  desirable  because  of  the 
large  size  of  the  "broilers"  and  "friers."  The  best- 
known  representatives  are  Brahmas,  Cochins,  Langshans 
and  FaveroUe,  the  latter  a  French  breed. 


Fig.  154.  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  Favorites  of  the  flock  having 
their  pictures  "took." 

317.  The  General-purpose  Breeds,  such  as  the  Plym- 
outh Rocks,  Wyandottes  and  Dorkings,  are  usually 
of  fair  size,  furnish  meat  of  good  quality,  and  will  pro- 
duce a  liberal  quantity  of  eggs  under  favorable  condi- 
tions. It  has  never  been  found  possible  to  completely 
combine  into  a  single  animal  the  milk  and  butter-fat 
quaUties  of  the  dairy  types  of  cattle  with  the  meat- 
forming  qualities  of  the  beef  breeds.  The  same  body 
cannot  be  made  to  do  both  kinds  of  work  to  the  same 
degree  of  perfection.  So  in  poultry,  we  may  blend,  but 
cannot  combine  the  egg-  and  meat-producing  qualities. 
In  selecting  a  breed,  one  should  first  decide  what  class 
of  chickens  will  give  the  greatest  return  under  the 
conditions, — a  special-purpose  egg  or  meat  breed,  or  a 


Farm  Poultry 


231 


blend  of  qualities.  The  general  -  purpose  breeds  have 
good  egg-producing  power,  and  produce  good-sized  friers 
and  broilers.  They  are  often  used  for  mothers  for  the 
egg  breeds.      (Fig.  157.) 

318.  Other  Classes  of  Poultry.  On  many  farms 
ducks  and  geese  are  raised  for  meat  and  feathers.  There 
are  great  differences  in  the  adaptability  of  the  breeds. 
Ponds  of  water  are  not  essential  for  success  with  this 
class  of  poultry.  The  food  should  be  given  to  these  birds 
in  a  soaked  or  softened  condition,  because  their  crops 
are  less  perfectly  developed  than  in  chickens,  hence  do 
not  thrive  so  well  on  hard  grains. 


Fig.  liiij.  Turkeys  come  home  to  roost. 


232  Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 


Fig.  156.   An  effective  method  of  confining  a  "cluck"  and  her  "peeps." 

319.  Turkeys  are  native  to  North  America.  While 
they  have  lost  much  of  their  shyness  and  roving  dispo- 
sition by  long  association  with  man,  they  still  must 
have  the  run  of  a  large  place  for  best  success.  The 
Bronze,  White  Holland  and  Black  Norfolk  are  the  most 
popular  strains. 

320.  The  Care  of  Young  Poultry.  Freshly  hatched 
fowls  of  all  classes  are  quite  delicate  and  therefore  call 
for  special  attention.  It  is  important  that  they  be  kept 
warm  and  dry  until  the  feathers  are  fairly  well  developed. 
Unless  the  mothers  are  confined  at  night,  they  will  most 
likely  lead  the  young  chickens  into  the  wet,  dewy  grass 
in  the  early  morning  hours.  Nothing  is  so  important  as 
warm,  dry  coops  and  regular  feeding  in  rearing  young 
chickens,  turkeys,  ducks  or  geese.  The  feed  should  be 
specially  prepared  and  offered  five  to  seven  times  during 
the  day.  No  feed  is  needed  for  the  first  day  or  two.  The 
first  food  should  be  such  as  may  be  digested  without  grit, 


Farm  Fouitry 


233 


such  as  ground  grain  or  stale  bread  just  well  moistened 
in  skim-milk.  It  makes  little  difference  whether  the  milk 
is  fresh  or  sour.  They  should  be  given  no  more  feed  than 
they  will  clean  up  promptly.  The  feed  supplies  to  young 
chickens,  and  older  ones  as  well,  should  contain  ground 
bone  or  other  form  of  mineral  matter.  It  is  not  so  im- 
portant that  they  have  animal  food,  as  plenty  of  mineral 


Fig.  157.   The  Plymouth  Rocks  are  often  used  for 
mothers  for  Leghorns. 

matter  and  protein.  The  latter  may  be  of  either  vegetable 
or  animal  origin.  Investigations  for  the  cause  of  death 
among  young  poultry  showed  that  15  per  cent  had  tuber- 
culosis, due  no  doubt  to  imperfect  sanitation;  38  per  cent 
had  intestinal  troubles,  and  75  per  cent  had  diseased 
livers,  influenced  no  doubt  by  unbalanced  rations. 
(H  335.)  Shelter,  feeding  and  exercise  are  points  to  be 
closely  studied.  The  greatest  losses  which  come  to  the 
poultry  raiser  are  those  due  to  disease  in  young  stock 
— and,  too,  from  diseases  that  can  be  prevented. 


234 


Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 


321.  Judging  Poultry.  Fig.  158  shows  the  names  of 
the  more  obvious  points  in  chickens.  The  size,  and  color- 
ings of  the  feathers  are  important  points  in  distinguishing 
the  different  breeds.  Purity  in  color  markings  does  not 
always  signify  that  the  animal  possesses  the  other 
qualities  that  are  usually  associated  with  the  breed. 


Fig.  158.     Names  of  the  points  considered  in  describing  chickens. 


1. 

Comb. 

9. 

Saddle-feathers. 

16. 

Primaries     or     flight- 

2. 

Face. 

10. 

Sickles. 

feathers, wing-butts. 

3. 

Wattles. 

11. 

Tail -coverts. 

17. 

Point  of  breast  bone. 

4. 

Ear-lobes. 

12. 

Main  tail  feathers. 

18. 

Thighs. 

5. 

Hackle. 

13. 

Wing-bow. 

19. 

Hocks. 

6. 

Breast. 

14. 

Wing  coverts  form- 

20. 

Shanks  or  legs. 

7. 

Back. 

ing  wing-bar. 

21. 

Spur. 

8. 

Saddle. 

15. 

Secondaries,  wing- 
bay. 

22. 

Toes  or  claws. 

CHAPTER  XXXII 
NUTRITION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY 

322.  Nutrition  of  the  Animal  Body.  The  nutrition 
of  the  body  of  the  farm  animals  is  through  the  same 
processes  which  have  heen  previously  described  for 
the  human  body  in  the  study  of  physiology.  The  feeds 
are  taken  in  by  the  tongue  and  lips,  masticated  by  the 
teeth,  and  digested  in  the  stomach  and  intestinal  canal. 

323.  Nutritive  Substances.  Animals  require  the  same 
classes  of  nutritive  substances  to  provide  for  growth, 
repair  and  waste  as  in  the  human  body.  The  sub- 
stances which  are  taken  into  the  digestive  tract  are 
not  available  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body  until  they 
have  been  rendered  soluble,  absorbed  and  become  a  part 
of  the  blood.  The  various  cells  of  the  body  absorb  the 
sugars,  proteids,  and  salts  directly  from  the  blood.  These 
substances  are  absorbed  through  the  cell -walls,  just 
as  the  yeast  absorbs  the  sugar  and  albumen  from  the 
solution  used  in  our  early  experiments.    (^  9a.) 

324.  Digestive  Tract  of  Domestic  Animals.  There 
are  important  differences  in  the  digestive  tracts  of  the 
several  classes  of  domestic  animals,  such  that  each 
is  adapted  to  the  different  classes  of  substances  upon 
which  they  feed  and  thrive. 

325.  Digestion  by  Fowls.  Birds  swallow  their  food 
whole  without  chewing.  It  passes  first  into  the  crop, 
where  it  is  stored  and  softened  by  soaking.  (Fig.  159  I.) 
Then  it  passes  into  the  thick-walled,  muscular  stomach 
or    gizzard.     The    gizzard    is    supplied    with    powerful 

(235) 


236 


Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 


muscles  which  break 
This  is  greatly  aided 
swallow. 

326.  Herbivorous 
usually  be   eaten  in 
needed  nutrients.    In 
is  not  only  of  a  great 
chambered    stomach, 


up  the  food  eaten  by  the  fowls, 
by  the  sharp  gravel  which  fowls 

Animals.     Vegetable    food    must 

greater   quantity   to   furnish   the 

herbivorous  animals  the  intestine 

length,  but  often  has  a  large  and 

furnishing    a    large    laboratory- 


Fig.  159.  Stomachs  of  some  domestic  animals.  I,  Crop  and  gizzard  of  fowl. 
B,  glandular  stomach;  C,  gizzard.  II.  Interior  of  horse  stomach  showing 
the  two  kinds  of  lining.  A,  left  sac  with  tough  white  hning;  B,  right 
sac  with  soft  red  lining  where  the  digestive  juices  are  secreted;  E, 
duodenum.  III.  Stomach  of  ox  as  seen  from  right  upper  face  (Chauveau), 
and  IV,  Stomach  of  sheep  with  second,  third  and  fourth  divisions  open. 
A,  oesophagus;  B'  Rumen,  or  first  division  of  stomach;  C,  reticulum;  D, 
,    omasum;  E,  abomasum,  or  true  stomach;  F,  duodenum. 


Nutrition  of  the  Animal  Body  237 

in  which  the  digestive  processes  may  be  carried  out. 
In  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  which  is  comparatively 
small,  two  regions  may  be  distinguished,  of  which  only 
the  right  or  second  part  secretes  digestive  juices. 

327.  Ruminating  Animals.  In  cattle  and  all  split- 
hoof  animals,  the  stomach  has  four  more  or  less  distinct 
compartments.  (Fig.  159  III  and  IV.)  When  a  sheep  or 
cow  bites  off  a  bit  of  grass,  it  is  moistened  with  a  small 
amount  of  saliva  and  swallowed  without  chewing,  pass- 
ing into  the  stomach,  or  paunch.  The  stomach  is  a  mere 
store-house.  After  a  time  the  animal  finds  a  quiet  place, 
regurgitates  a  ball  of  grass,  called  a  cud,  which  is  slowly 
ground  up  between  the  molar  teeth.  This  mass  is  again 
swallowed  and  passes  into  the  second  stomach,  and 
then  on  to  the  fourth  or  true  stomach  where  the  gastric 
digestion  commences.  Ruminating  animals  continue 
the  digestive  processes  for  a  longer  period,  chew  their 
food  finer,  and,  in  general,  digest  a  larger  per  cent  of  the 
protein,  carbohydrates,  crude  fiber  and  fat,  than  non- 
ruminants,  like  the  horse. 

328.  Nutrients  in  Feeds.  The  animal  must  secure 
from  the  feeds  consumed  all  the  substances  needed  for 
the  support  and  growth  of  the  animal  body.  The  undi- 
gested parts  form  the  waste.  The  nutritive  substances 
actually  secured  from  the  feeds  are  classed  as: 

1.  Proteids  (albumin,  albuminoids,  amides,  etc.). 

2.  Fats  (oils,  fats). 

3.  Carbohydrates  (sugar,  starches,  gums,  celluloses). 

4.  Mineral  Matters  (salts  of  the  elements  found 
in  plants). 

5.  Water. 

329.  Functions  of  the  Nutrients.  The  two  chief  uses 
of  the  nutrients  in  animal  feeds  are  to  supply: 


238     ,      Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

1.  Building  material  for  muscle,  bones,  skin,  etc., 
and  repair  the  waste. 

2.  Heat  to  keep  the  body  warm,  and  to  supply 
energy  for  work. 

The  several  classes  of  nutrients  act  in  different  ways 
in  fulfilling  these  functions.  The  proteids  from  the 
muscles,  tendons,  gristle,  hair  and  hoofs  supply  the  pro- 
teids of  blood,  milk  and  other  fluids,  as  well  as  the  whites 
and  yellow  in  eggs.  The  chief  fuel  or  heat-giving  ingre- 
dients are  the  carbohydrates  and  fats.  These  are  con- 
sumed in  the  body  or  stored  as  fat  to  be  used  as  occa- 
sion demands.  The  proteids  may  supply  energy,  though 
it  is  not  supposed  that  they  do  so  in  the  presence  of 
sufficient  fats  and  carbohydrates. 

330.  Fuel  Value  of  Feeds.  Starches,  sugars,  and  fats, 
are  burned  (oxidized)  in  the  body  and  yield  heat  and 
power,  just  as  the  same  substances  would  if  burned 
in  the  stove  to  heat  the  house  or  under  the  boiler  to 
make  the  steam  for  the  engine.  The  heat  or  energy  is 
developed  gradually  as  the  needs  of  the  body  demand. 
Scientists  have  ways  of  determining  the  fuel  value  of 
substances,  and  for  the  purpose  of  comparison  use  as 
the  unit  of  measurement  the  calorie  (equal  to  the  heat 
required  to  raise  one  kilogram  of  water  one  degree  Centi- 
grade, or  one  pound  of  water  four  degrees  Fahrenheit). 

331.  Digestibility  of  Feeds.  The  value  of  a  substance 
as  a  feed  depends  not  only  upon  the  quantity  of  the 
different  kinds  of  nutrients  contained,  but  also  upon 
how  much  of  the  nutrients  are  in  a  form  that  they  can 
be  digested  and  used  for  the  support  of  the  animal 
body.  The  usefulness  of  a  substance  for  feeding  depends, 
then,  not  on  its  gross  weight,  but  upon  the  amount  of 
building  material  and  heat  energy  which  the  animal 


Nutrition  of  the  Animal  Body  239 

may  extract  from  it.  In  comparing  feeding  substances 
we  should  not  only  know  the  actual  amount  of  proteids, 
fat,  carbohydrates,  etc.,  contained,  but  what  per  cent  of 
these  substances  is  digestible. 

In  some  digestion  tests  at  the  Oklahoma  Experiment 
Station  with  cockerels,  it  was  found  that  79.4  per  cent, 
of  the  whole  kaffir  corn  was  digested,  i.  e.,  retained 
in  the  animal's  body;  in  the  same  way  81.9  per  cent  of 
corn,  and  64.1  per  cent  of  cowpeas  were  digested. 

332.  Digestibility  of  the  Nutrients.  In  the  digestion 
tests  mentioned  above  the  composition  of  the  substance 
fed,  the  nutrients  digested  and  the  waste,  were  as  fol- 
lows for  each  100  grams  consumed: 

Protein  Carbohydrates  and  fats 

Nutrients  in  Kaffir  corn. ..     11.88  grams  75.16  grams 

Digested  and  retained 6.28  grams  73.09  grams 

Undigested  waste 5.60  grams  2.07  grams 

In  the  above  case  it  is  noted  that  nearly  all  the 
carbohydrates  were  digested,  though  only  about  half 
of  the  proteids  were  used  in  the  cockerel's  body.  Similar 
tests  have  been  made  for  many  kinds  of  feeds  with 
many  kinds  of  animals. 

We  see  from  this  example  that  a  chemical  analysis 
giving  the  quantity  of  the  nutrients  is  not  an  exact 
statement  of  the  available  nutrientSo  Appendix  D  gives 
the  average  results  of  many  tests  of  the  digestibility  of 
American  feeding  materials.  See  also  tables  of  compo- 
sition in  Appendix. 

333.  Ratio  of  Digestible  Nutrients.  In  feeding  ani- 
mals it  is  important,  as  will  be  shown,  to  know  the  ratio 
of  the  digestible  proteids,  or  flesh -forming  nutrients, 
to  the  effective  heat -forming  substances.    This  ratio 


240  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

is  called  the  "nutritive  ratio^'  and  is  taken  to  mean  the 
ratio  of  the  digestible  proteids  to  the  digestible  car- 
bohydrates plus  2.25  times  the  fat.  (The  fat  has  two 
and  one-fourth  times  as  much  heat  energy  per  pound 
as  the  carbohydrates.)  Thus,  in  the  preceding  example, 
•the  nutritive  ratio  is  1:11.6,  which  means  that  the  heat- 
producing  nutrients  are  11.6  times  greater  than  the 
tissue-building  nutrients. 

Example  with  Cowpeas. 


Proteids 

Carbohydrates 

Fats 

Grams 

Grains 

Grams 

Nutrients  in  cowpeas 

..     21.44 

62.16 

2.38 

Digested  and  retained  . . . 

. .       8.68 

55.30 

2.24 

Undigested  waste 12.76  6.86  .14 

Ratio  for  digestible  nutrients  is  8.68 :(55.30+2.24X  2.25)  = 

8.68  :(55.30-f  5.60)  = 

8.68:  60.90= nutritive  ratio  1:7.01 

The  ratio  calculated  according  to  the  chemical 
composition  is  1:3.1,  which  we  see  would  be  quite  mis- 
leading, judging  by  the  actual  ratio  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents, which  is  1:7.01. 

334.  Application  of  Ratios.  The  ratio  of  flesh-form- 
ing nutrients  to  the  heat-producing  nutrients  should  be 
suited  to  the  condition  and  requirements  of  the  animal. 
Animals  at  heavy  work,  where  the  muscle  materials 
are  being  used  up,  require  relatively  more  proteids 
than  when  merely  at  rest.  Likewise,  young  and  grow- 
ing animals  require  plenty  of  building  material,  or 
animals  which  produce  substances  like  milk,  eggs 
and  wool — substances  that  contain  large  quantities 
of  proteids  —  should  have  food  rich  in  proteids.  (See 
table  E  in  Appendix.)  • 


Nutrition  of  the  Animal  Body  241 

335.  Economy  of  Balanced  Rations.  When  the  pro- 
teids  and  heat -producing  substances  are  suppUed  in 
the  ratio  approximately  in  which  they  are  consumed, 
the  ratio  is  said  to  be  ''balanced."  There  may  be  wide 
limits  in  the  nutritive  ratio  without  imparing  the  general 
health  of  the  animals,  but  there  may  be  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  cost  of  properly  nourishing  the  animal.  The 
feeds  rich  in  proteids  are  very  expensive,  and  it  is  desired 
that  they  be  used  only  in  the  formation  of  nitrogenous 
products,  and  never  to  supply  energy.  The  cheaper 
starchy  foods  should  be  used  in  suflB.cient  quantity 
to  supply  heat  and  muscular  energy.  Thus,  we  see 
that  by  knowing  something  of  the  composition  and 
digestibility  of  the  common  feeds,  we  may  combine 
them  in  such  proportions  that  the  animal  may  be  prop- 
erly nourished  at  small  cost. 

336.  Kinds  of  Rations.  Rations  are  classed  accord- 
ing to  their  effect  on  the  animal,  as  regards  bodily  weight 
or  function.    The  most  usual  designations  are: 

(a)  Deficient  ration  is  one  in  which  the  animal 
loses  weight. 

(b)  Maintenance  ration  is  '  one  which  allows  just 
enough  to  keep  the  animal  in  good  health  without  loss 
or  gain  in  bodily  weight.  This  is  usually  about  three- 
fourths  to  one  pound  of  nutrients  to  the  hundred  pounds 
of  live  weight. 

(c)  Growing  ration  is  one  allowing  of  a  regular 
ga'n  in  weight.  The  amount  of  feed  which  a  young 
animal  may  profitably  consume  varies  widely,  usually 
from  2  to  4  per  cent  of  live  weight. 

(d)  Work  ration  is  one  that  will  sustain  an  animal 
at  work  without  loss  of  weight  or  vigor. 

(e)  Dairy  ration   is  one  that  supplies  the  materials 


242 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


for  maintenance  of  bodily  conditions,  as  well  as  those 
used  in  secreting  the  milk. 

There  are  many  other  kinds  of  special  rations,  refer- 
ring to  the  bodily  needs  of  animals  maintained  under 
special  conditions,  such  as  egg  rations,  wool  rations, 
etc. 

337.  Planning  a  Ration.  Suppose  it  is  desired  to 
know  how  much  and  what  kinds  of  feeds  to  give  to  a 
dairy  cow  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  giving  two  gal- 
lons of  milk  per  day.  Turning  to  table  of  standard 
feeding  requirements  (Appendix  F.)  we  have: 

Live  weight     Total 
pounds  dry 

required      matter 

Dairy  COW,  16  lbs.  milk..     1,000  27 


Digestible  nutrients 
Pro-  Carbo- 

tein  hydrate  Fat 

2.0  11.0  0.4 


The  problem  is  to  find  the  combination  of  feeds 
that  will  supply  the  above  nutrients  in  approximately 
the  amounts  indicated.  Suppose  we  have  alfalfa  hay, 
wheat  bran  and  cottonseed  meal.  After  studying  the 
tables  of  composition  and  digestible  nutrients  as  given 
in  the  Appendix,  we  may  make  a  trial  guess,  with  the 
result  as  follows: 


Amount 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Feeds 

Proteid 

Carbohy- 
drates, fat 

C!ost 

Alfalfa  hay,  dry. 

Mixed  hay 

Wheat  bran  .... 
Cottonseed  meal. 

10  lbs. 
10  lbs. 

5  lbs. 

lib. 

9.2 

8.5 

4.4 

.9 

1.10 
.44 
.60 
.40 

4.2 

4.4 

2.3 

.4 

.... 

Total 

26  lbs. 

23.0 

2.54 

11.3 



The  result  shows  that  we  do  not  have  enough  dry 
matter,    and  too   much   proteid  by   .54   pounds.     The 


Nutrition  of  the  Animal  Body 


243 


latter  is  usually  very  expensive  and  would  be  advisable 
only  when  the  alfalfa  was  very  cheap.  Suppose  we 
decrease  the  alfalfa,  increase  the  mixed  hay,  and  leave 
out  the  cottonseed  meal,  which  may  be  done  when  we 
feed  rich  nitrogenous  hay,  like  alfalfa.    Then  we  try: 


Amount 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Feeds 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates, fat 

Cost 

Alfalfa  hay 

Mixed  hay 

Bran 

5  lbs. 

20  lbs. 

5  lbs. 

4.6 

16.9 

4.4 

.55 

.88 
.60 

2.1 
8.9 
2.3 



Totals 

30  lbs. 

25.9 

2.03 

13.3 



The  result  is  quite  close  enough.  Close  observation 
may  suggest  slight  variations  to  suit  the  needs  of  differ- 
ent animals.  It  should  be  understood  that  these  "stand- 
ards" are  averages,  and  that  particular  animals  may 
require  more  or  less  than  the  amounts  indicated. 

338.  The  Amount  of  Feed  required  depends  on  the 
size  and  condition,  and  also  on  the  individuality  of 
the  animal.  By  many  carefully  conducted  trials,  inves- 
tigators of  feeding  problems  have  made  approximations 
of  the  dry  matter,  protein,  carbohydrates,  etc.,  needed 
per  hundred  or  thousand  pounds  live  weight  of  animal 
per  day.    (See  table  of  feeding  standards  in  Appendix.) 

339.  Roughage  and  Concentrated  Foods.  According 
to  the  per  cent  of  digestible  nutrients  in  feed  stuffs 
they  are  classed  as  Roughage  and  Concentrates.  Sub- 
stances like  hay,  which  contain  a  large  per  cent  of  undi- 
gestible  substance,  are  called  Forage  or  Roughage,  and 
those  like  the  grains,  cottonseed  meal,  etc.,  in  which 
nearly  all  is  digestible,  are  called  Concentrates.   Rough- 


244'  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

age  is  desirable  to  give  bulk  to  the  ration.  Straw  is  an 
excellent  roughage,  yet  if  fed  on  straw  alone,  an  animal 
would  be  unable  to  eat  enough  to  secure  the  needed 
nutrients.  If  fed  on  concentrates  entirely,  the  digestive 
juice  could  not  act  on  all  parts  sufficiently  and  disorder 
would  follow.  Water  and  fiber  give  bulk  to  feeds. 
Ruminating  animals  require  about  two-thirds  of  their 
feed  to  be  in  the  form  of  roughage.  For  horses,  about 
one-half  should  be  in  the  form  of  roughage. 

340.  The  Food  Should  Be  Palatable.  The  food  supplied 
should  be  relished.  A  ration  may  be  perfectly  balanced, 
so  far  as  its  nutrients  are  concerned,  and  yet  if  it  is  not 
palatable,  good  results  may  not  be  secured.  One  way 
of  making  foods  palatable  is  to  give  a  change — change 
in  hay  or  in  concentrates.  In  changing  from  one  kind 
of  feed  to  another,  however,  the  change  should  be  made 
gradually.  Abrupt  changes  in  feed  are  likely  to  throw 
highly  fed  animals  ''off  feed."  Animals  relish  variety 
at  the  dinner-table  just  as  we  do.  The  good  effect  of 
green  feeds  in  winter  time  is  probably  due  in  part  to 
this  fact.  Green  feeds  through  the  winter  may  be  easily 
supplied  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  South  by  sowing  fall 
oats  or  wheat.  Green  feeds  aid  the  digestion  of  other 
feeds. 

341.  Importance  of  Salt  for  Stock.  Every  good 
farmer  knows  that  his  stock  needs  salt,  and  takes  pains 
to  supply  them.  All  classes  of  farm  animals  should 
have  salt  where  they  can  get  it  every  day.  Almost 
every  animal  will  take  salt  every  day.  Either  fine 
or  rock-salt  may  be  used,  and,  to  prevent  waste  from 
rains,  it  should,  if  possible,  be  under  a  shed.  Ruminating 
animals  (sheep  and  cattle)  need  salt  more  regularly 
and  abundantly  than  horses.   Dairy  cows  should  always 


Nutrition  of  the  Animal  Body  245 

receive  special  attention  in  this  respect.  Salt  aids  diges- 
tion, improves  the  appetite,  and  lessens  the  danger 
from  disease.  Small  quantities  of  salt  in  the  feed  will 
often  stimulate  the  appetite  of  sick  animals  and  acts 
as  a  good  tonic. 

342.  Preparations  of  Feeds.  The  extent  to  which 
different  feeds  should  be  prepared  by  grinding,  shred- 
ding, soaking,  cooking,  etc.,  before  feeding  is,  in  many 
cases,  an  open  question.  When  grain  is  fed  to  ruminants 
it  is  best  to  have  it  milled,  but  in  other  cases  it  is  fre- 
quently without  advantages,  except  in  the  case  of  kaffir 
corn.    Kaffir  corn  should  be  ground  for  all  farm  stock. 

343.  Racial  Peculiarities  are  observed  in  the  way 
different  breeds  dispose  of  the  feed  they  consume  above 
that  required  for  maintenance.  This  is  important.  The 
manner  in  which  an  animal  disposes  of  the  feed  above 
that  required  for  maintenance  governs  the  profit  or 
loss  in  animal  husbandry.  It  is  this  extra  quantity  of 
feed  that  makes  flesh,  milk,  eggs,  or  performs  work. 
If  the  maintenance  ration  be  assumed  to  be  eight  pounds 
of  dry  matter  and  the  feed  contains  twenty-five  pounds, 
what  becomes  of  the  additional  seventeen  pounds 
of  feed?  The  Hereford  steer  would  deposit  it  in  the 
loin  steaks  and  thick  quarters.  The  animals  would 
gain  in  weight.  The  dairy  cow  would  probably  not  gain 
in  weight,  but  use  it  in  making  the  fat,  sugar  and  curd 
of  milk.  An  animal  is  valuable  for  its  ability  to  trans- 
form large  quantities  of  crude  farm  feeds  into  special 
products,  such  as  valuable  cuts  of  meat,  milk,  wool, 
etc.,  or  to  perform  labor. 

344.  Individual  Peculiarities  are  also  to  be  noted. 
The  average  dairy  cow  will  profitably  use  about  six 
pounds  of  feed  above  the  maintenance  ration.    Many 


246  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

animals  will  be  able  to  profitably  use  only  three  or  four 
pounds,  while  still  others  may  return  a  profit  on  twelve 
or  fifteen  pounds.  The  intelligent  feeder  knows  how 
to  feed  to  get  best  results,  but  in  every  herd  or  flock 
there  are  ''good  feeders"  and  "poor  feeders."  The 
wise  breeder  notes  the  peculiarities  in  selecting  his 
animals  for  propagation.  "Like  begets  like,"  in  habits 
as  well  as  in  form. 

345.  Skill  in  Feeding.  The  observant  farmer  or 
feeder  will  soon  learn  the  peculiarities  of  his  animals. 
He  never  feeds  an  animal  so  abundantly  that  the  appe- 
tite will  be  lax  at  the  next  feeding.  He  will  feed  often 
and  regularly.  In  fattening  hogs,  steers,  etc.,  he  begins 
with  light  rations,  and  increases  gradually  as  circum- 
stances suggest  until  the  stock  are  on  "full  feed." 

346.  Pasturage.  Wherever  possible,  provision  should 
be  made  for  stock  to  gather  green  food  from  pastures. 
It  is  a  benefit  to  the  fields  to  sow  them  in  winter  annuals 
and  allow  the  stock  to  graze  during  dry  weather.  This 
is  -especially  desirable  for  poultry,  dairy  cattle  and  hogs. 
In  some  cases  it  is  profitable  to  haul  the  green  feed  to 
the  stock,  rather  than  pasture  it.  This  latter  practice 
is  spoken  of  as  "soiling"  and  the  crop  as  a  "soihng 
crop." 

347.  Shelter  for  Farm  Animals.  A  simple  shelter 
to  shield  stock  and  poultry  from  wet  or  cold  weather 
is  necessary  on  every  farm.  This  need  not  be  so  elabo- 
rate and  costly  as  those  used  in  colder  regions.  Shelter 
reduces  the  cost  of  feeding.  Exposure  reduces  the 
flow  of  milk  in  dairy  cows  and  the  frequency  of  laying 
in  poultry. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
FARM   DAIRYING 

348.  Farm  Dairying.  The  dairy  cow  on  the  farm 
is  a  necessity,  first  and  foremost,  because  she  suppUes 
food  for  the  family  which  in  quaUty  and  cheapness  is 
without  comparison.  Milk  and  eggs  supply  the  protein 
nutrients  needed  by  the  human  body  cheaper  than 
meats.  A  pound  of  steak,  a  dozen  eggs,  or  a  quart  of 
milk  supply  about  the  same  amount  of  protein,  yet 
the  selling  price  of  the  milk,  on  an  average,  is  less  than 
half  the  cost  of  the  others.  Milk  and  butter  are  not 
only  important  foods,  but  valuable  condiments  used 
in  many  ways  in  rendering  other  foods  palatable.  It 
is  these  qualities  that  make  a  market  for  dairy  products 
the  world  over. 

349.  A  Natural  Advantage  of  the  South  is  the  ease 
with  whidi  green  feeds  may  be  grown  throughout  the 
entire  year.  Many  dairies  are  profitable  without  green 
feeds,  yet  every  one  recognizes  that  fresh  green  feed, 
either  in  pastures  or  in  soiling  crops,  is  a  great  aid  in 
increasing  the  flow  of  milk.  Mild  winters  remove  the 
necessity  for  expensive  barns,  and  reduce  the  quantity 
of  feed  needed  to  keep  the  cow  in  splendid    condition. 

350.  The  Distinctive  Quality  of  the  Dairy  Cow  is 
her  capacity  to  manufacture  large  quantities  of  milk, 
rich  in  butter -fat,  from  common  feeds.  A  cow  that 
does  not  give  more  than  two  gallons  of  rich  milk  per 
day  should  be  discarded.  The  richness  of  the  milk  is 
always  to  be  considered.    The  Babcock  test  (Fig.  160) 

(247) 


248  ..         Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 


places  easily  at  the  disposal  of  every  farmer  a  means 
of  determining  the  butter-producing  qualities  of  every 
cow  in  the  herd.  The  success  or  failure  of  the  farm  dairy 
to  yield  a  profit  on  the  outlay  for  land,  building,  feed 
and  labor,  lies  in  the  proper  selection  of  the  cows  to 
compose  the  herd. 

351.  The  Babcock  Test  is  a  simple  means  of  testing 
the  milk  to  determine  the  amount  of  butter-fat  (rich- 
ness) contained  in  a  sample  of  milk.  It  takes  its  name 
from  Professor  Babcock,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
who  discovered  the  method  of  making  the  test.    By  its 

use  the  dairyman  may  learn  which 
of  his  cows  pay  for  their  board. 
The  milk  from  each  cow  is 
weighed,  and  a  small  sample  used 
to  determine  the  per  cent  of  but- 
ter-fat. Knowing  these  two  facts, 
the  total  butter-yield  for  each  cow 
may  be  calculated.  In  this  w^ay 
the  value  of  the  cow  is  definitely 
known.  It  is  easier  and  more 
reliable  than  a  ^'churning  test," 
In  making  the  test,  a  measured  quantity  of  milk  is  put 
into  a  special  flask  (Fig.  160),  and  to  this  a  small 
quantity  of  acid  is  added.  By  following  a  few  simple 
operations,  for  which  directions  come  with  every 
machine,  the  per  cent  of  butter-fat  is  read  off  directly 
on  the  graduated  neck  of  the  bottle.  Knowing  the 
per  cent  of  butter-fat  and  the  quantity  of  milk,  the 
amount  of  butter  in  each  cow's  milk  may  be  quickly 
calculated. 

352.  How  Dairy  Cows  Are  Valued.  The  dairy  cow 
is  valuable  according  to  her  ability  to  convert  farm  feeds 


Fig.  160.  Apparatus  used 
in  making  the  Babcock 
test. 


Farm  Dairying 


249 


into  milk  rich  in  butter-fat.  Creameries  and  dairies 
pay  for  milk  according  to  the  per  cent  of  butter-fat, 
and  not  the  mere  gallons  of  milk.  •  (See  Fig.  124.) 

352a.  (a)  Farmer  "A"  runs  a  small  butter  dairy.  He  bought 
a  Babcock  Test,  and  made  a  test  of  each  cow's  milk  with  the  fol- 
lowing results: 


Name  of  cow 


Blossom 
Flower  . 
Nancy  . 
Lily.  .. 


Average  daily 
flow  of  milk 


Pounds 

23 
14 
31 
20 


Per  cent  of  butter- 
fat  in  average 
samples 


Per  cent 

2.3 
3.1 
4.2 
6.5 


Pounds  butter- 
fat  daily 


Calculate  the  amount  of  butter-fat  in  each  cow's  milk.  One 
pound  of  butter-fat  is  equal  to  one  and  one-sixth  pounds  commer- 
cial butter.  How  much  butter  would  these  cows  make  in  ten 
months? 


353.  Other  Uses  of  the  Babcock  Test.  Creameries 
no  longer  buy  milk  by  the  ''gallon,"  but  pay  so  much 
a  pound  for  the  butter-fat.  This  does  away  with  the 
temptation  to  water  the  milk.  In  cities,  public  dairies 
are  required  to  sell  pure  milk,  with  a  certain  amount 
of  butter-fat,  usually  not  less  than  3.5  per  cent.  By  the 
use  of  the  test,  both  the  dairyman  and  the  public  offi- 
cials may  easily  know  if  the  milk  is  up  to  the  required 
standard  of  richness.  The  butter  in  buttermilk  is  often 
a  source  of  considerable  loss.  By  testing  the  buttermilk, 
or  skim-milk,  the  dairyman  may  know  if  his  methods 
get  all  the  butter. 

354.  Composition  of  Milk.  Milk  contains  about  87 
per  cent  water  and  13  per  cent  solids,  divided  as  fol- 
lows: 5  per  cent  sugar,  3.3  per  cent  protein,  4  per  cent 


250  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

fat  and  only  0.7  per  cent  mineral  matter,  or  salts.  The 
milk  from  different  cows  varies  considerably.  The  solids 
may  be  as  low  as  10  per  cent  or  as  high  as  18  per  cent. 
The  protein  (the  substance  that  thickens  and  forms 
clabber)  may  be  low  if  cows  do  not  receive  feeds  suffi- 
ciently rich  in  protein.  The  fat  varies,  sometimes  as 
low  as  2.5  per  cent  and  sometimes  as  high  as  8  per  cent. 
The  legal  standard  required  by  state  and  city  laws  is 
3  to  3.5  per  cent  fat,  and  9  to  9.5  per  cent  solids  other 
than  fat.  The  composition  of  milk  is  but  slightly  changed 
by  the  feed  a  cow  consumes.  The  feed  does  affect  the 
quantity  of  milk,  however. 

355.  How  the  Kind  of  Feed  Affects  the  Flow  of  Milk. 
The  feeding  of  dairy  cows  to  increase  the  flow  of  milk 
has  long  been  studied,  both  by  the  experiment  stations 
and  practical  dairymen.  The  exact  methods  of  scien- 
tific investigation  where  the  feed  consumed  and  the 
milk  and  butter  produced  are  carefully  weighed,  teach, 
that  for  the  best  results  dairy  cows  should  have: 

(a)  An  allowance  of  green,  succulent  food,  either 
.  by  pasturing,  soihng  crops  or  silage. 

(6)  Some  dry  roughness  in  the  form  of  hay,  corn 
stover,  or  straw. 

(c)  Grains  or  concentrates  supplying  sufficient  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates  to  bring  the  ration  to  the  normal 
dairy  standard. 

Succulent  feeds  promote  the  digestion  of  other  feeds, 
and  give  flavor  and  color  to  the  milk  and  butter. 

Dry  roughage  has  a  wholesome  effect  on  the  health 
and  general  condition  of  the  cows.  The  cow  craves 
some  dry  feed  which  can  be  hastily  swallowed,  and 
while  lying  down  at  rest,  be  regurgitated  and  chewed 
over. 


Farm  Dairying 


251 


^o"  Vo"^  ^ 


356.  Changes  in  Milk.  Bacteria  are  the  active  agents 
of  change  in  milk.  The  souring  of  milk  is  due  to  the 
formation  of  acid  by  bac- 
teria. When  the  acid 
accumulates  in  sufficient 
quantity,  it  combines  with 
the  protein  to  form  the 
clabber.  If  bacteria  are 
kept  out  of  the  milk,  it  will 
keep  sweet  indefinitely. 
The  flavors  developed  in 
milk  and  butter  are  due 
to  the  presence  of  certain 
kinds  of  bacteria.  Some  give  the  butter  undesirable 
flavor,  and  some  greatly  improve  the  flavor.  The  flavor 
of  butter,  however,  may  be  controlled  by  destroying 
all  the  bacteria  in  the  milk  or  cream  by  Pasteurization. 
(H  367.)  After  the  milk  or  cream  has  been  freed  from 
the  desirable,  as  well  as  undesirable  germs,  by  the 
process  mentioned,  it  is  then  cooled  and  desirable  ones 


Fig  161.  Microscopic  appearance  of 
ordinary  milk  showing  fat  globules 
and  bacteria  in  the  milk.  The 
cluster  of  bacteria  on  left  side  are 
lactic  acid -forming  germs.  After 
Russell,  University  of  Wisconsin. 


Progeny  of 
a  Single  Germ  © 
In  twelve  hours. 


.""C-: 


Fig.  162.    Cooling  hinders  growth  of  bacteria.     After  RusselL 


252'  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

are  added  and  maintained  at  a  temperature  favorable 
to  the  development  of  proper  flavors  and  texture  in  the 
butter.  This  is  prefer ab/y  between  60°  and  70°  Fahr. 
This  practice.is  known  as  adding  a  ''starter/'  and  is 
used  extensively  in  commercial  butter- 
making.  In  the  absence  of  commercial 
starters,  a  little  sour  milk  will  prove 
quite  satisfactory. 

357.  Gravity  Creaming. 
When  milk  is  "set"  to  allow 
the  cream  to  rise,  it  should  be 
kept    cool.     The    cream    rises 
quicker  and  more  completely 
if  kept  cool   by  ice   or  moist 
cloths.     Gravity  creaming 
leaves  from  0.2  to  1.0  per 
cent  of  the  butter-fat  in 
the  milk  even  when  the 
temperature  of  the   milk 
is  kept  at  60°  Fahr.   The 
rise  of  the  fat  globules  of 
milk  to  form  ''cream"  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  fat 
is  lighter  than  water  or 
the  milk  serum. 

Where     circumstances 

make    the    purchase     of    a  ^^^'  '"'•     a  modem  cream  separator. 

centrifugal  separator  inadvisable,  resort  must  be  had  to 
gravity  creaming.  There  are  three  methods  of  gravity 
creaming  to  be  considered.  The  ''shallow  pan  setting" 
involves  the  use  of  the  conventional  milk-pans  about 
four  inches  deep.  With  favorable  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture, about  60°  Fahr.,  one  may  count  on  leaving  from 


Farm  Dairying  253 

0.1  to  1  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  skim-milk.  An  average 
will  be  about  0.5  per  cent.  Very  deep  vessels  are  used 
in  the  ''deep  setting  method."  The  latter  will  give  a 
more  complete  separation  where  the  temperature  can  be 
kept  low,  leaving  only  about  0.3  per  cent  fat  in  the  skim- 
milk.  Sometimes  the  ''water  dilution  method"  is  used. 
The  fresh  milk  is  diluted  with  an  equal  volume  of  water 
before  setting.  This  renders  the  milk  unsuitable  for 
domestic  use,  and,  besides,  has  been  found  to  leave 
more  butter-fat  in' the  milk  than  any  system  of  gravity 
creaming. 

358.  Centrifugal  Creaming.  The  cream  separator  is  a 
machine  for  separating  the  cream  from  milk  while  fresh. 
It  separates  cream  much  better,  quicker  and  with  less 
work  than  gravity  creaming.  Good  separators  leave 
only  0.02  to  0.08  per  cent  of  the  butter-fat  in  the  milk. 
The  separator  also  gives  a  cleaner  cream  than  can  be 
obtained  by  the  usual  methods.  The  effectiveness  of 
cream  separators  is  due  to  the  action  of  centrifugal  force, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  throw  the  heavier  particles  to 
the  outside.  Cream  being  Ughter  than  skimmed  milk, 
it  is  thrown  to  the  center  and  the  skimmed  milk  thrown 
to  the  outside  of  a  rapidly  revolving  hollow  ball. 

858a.  Farmer  Smith  milked  ten  cows,  giving  an  average  of 
6,000  pounds  of  milk  per  year.  He  used  the  gravity  creaming  pro- 
cess and  lost  one-third  to  three-fourths  pound  of  butter  on  every 
hundred  pounds  of  milk  due  to  imperfect  separation  of  the  cream. 
His  neighbor  advised  the  purchase  of  a  cream  separator  which 
would  leave  only  one-twentieth  pound  of  butter-fat  in  the  milk, 
telling  him  that  besides  saving  the  difference  in  butter-fat  he  would 
be  able  to  feed  his  calves  the  fresh-skimmed  warm  milk.  Estimate 
the  difference  and  give  your  advice  to  Farmer  Smith. 

359.  Sanitary  Dairy  Products.  In  the  production 
of  sanitary  dairy  products,  great  care  must  be  observed 


254,,  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

in  the  following  particulars:  (1)  The  healthfulness 
of  the  animals.  (2)  The  healthfulness  of  the  milker. 
(3)  The  cleanliness  of  the  stables.  (4)  The  care  in 
milking.  (5)  The  care  in  keeping  the  milk.  Unless 
all  of  these  conditions  are  carefully  observed,  sanitary 
milk-production  is  an  impossibility. 

360.  The  Healthfulness  of  the  Animals.  Unless  the 
dairy  cow  is  in  a  healthy  condition,  she  should 
not  be  expected  to  secrete  a  healthy  milk.  All  of  the 
blood  which  goes  to  the  manufacture  of  milk  must  pass 
through  the  circulation,  and  if  any  diseases  are  present 
the  blood  is  apt  to  take  up  the  germs  producing  them, 
and  in  some  cases  these  same  germs  have  been  found 
in  the  milk.  It  will,  therefore,  be  noted  that  the  first 
essential  in  the  production  of  sanitary  dairy  products 
is  the  presence  of  a  healthy  herd  of  cows. 

361.  The  Healthfulness  of  the  Milker.  On  account 
of  the  fact  that  milk  is  peculiarly  adaptable  to  the 
growth  of  germs,  any  one  having  a  contagious  or  infec- 
tious disease  should  not  come  in  contact  with  it.  Germs 
are  always  present  in  such  cases,  as  smallpox,  typhoid 
fever,  diphtheria,  etc.,  and  are  certain  to  find  their  way 
into  the  product  if  the  person  afflicted  is  permitted 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  milk  or  butter. 

362.  Cleanliness  of  the  Stable.  At  best,  the  stable 
is  difficult  to  free  from  bacteria.  The  great  natural 
enemies  of  bacteria  are  Hght  and  sunshine.  The  stable 
should  be  kept  clean,  and  there  should  always  be  pres- 
ent an  abundance  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine.  The  dark 
corners  of  the  stable,  filled  with  dust,  are  the  houses 
of  millions  of  germs  which  finally  find  their  way  into 
the  milk  and  make  it  unfit  for  human  food. 

363.  Care  in  Milking.    When  milk  first  comes  from 


Farm  Dairying 


255 


a  healthy  cow,  it  is  clean,  wholesome,  and  free  from 
bacteria  or  germs.  It  is  also  known  that  it  is  possible 
to  produce  milk  with  comparatively  only  a  few  germs 
by  the  exercise  of  care  in  milking.  The  care  in  milking 
consists  in  clean  hands  and  clean  clothes  on  the  part 
of  the  milker,  and  the  proper  cleaning  of  the  cow's 
udder  before  the  milking  begins. 


Fig.  164.   Revolving  barrel  chum. 

364.  Care  in  Keeping  Milk.  Milk  is  very  susceptible 
to  bad  odors  as  well  as  germs,  therefore  it  should  be 
removed  to  a  cool,  clean  place  as  soon  as  milked.  The 
milking  should  precede  the  feeding,  as  there  is  always 
more  or  less  dust  present  in  feeding  hay,  and  other 
undesirable  odors  are  present  when  feeding  silage  or 
root  crops.    As  soon  as  milked,  the  animal  heat  and 


256  '         Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

animal  odor  should  be  removed  by  thoroughly  airing 
and  cooling  the  milk. 

366.  Churning.  The  size,  consistency  and  number 
of  the  butter-fat  globules  is  not  always  the  same.  The 
object  of  churning  is  to  cause  these  many,  minute  fat 
globules  to  unite  to  form  larger  ones.  This  is  brought 
about  by  agitating  the  milk  in  such  a  way  that  the 
globules  will  rub  against  each  other  and  unite.  As 
temperature  greatly  affects  the  consistency  of  the 
globules  it  also  affects  the  nature  of  the  result  in  churn- 
ing. If  the  temperature  is  very  low,  the  globules  are 
hard  and  are  less  likely  to  adhere  in  the  operation  of 
churning.  If  the  temperature  is  very  high,  it  renders 
the  globules  quite  soft  and  churning  has  a  tendency  to 
cause  them  to  break  up  into  even  smaller  particles. 
There  are  many  other  conditions  besides  the  tempera- 
ture that  affect  the  '^gathering,"  or  ''breaking/'  of  the 
butter-fat  globules  and  the  character  or  quality  of 
the  butter,  such  as  the  condition  and  breed  of  the  cows, 
the  feed  of  the  cows,  the  temperature  maintained  dur- 
ing the  ripening  of  the  cream,  the  acidity  of  the  cream 
and  even  the  nature  of  the  agitation  given  the  cream 
in  churning.  As  these  conditions  vary,  so  will  the  churn- 
ing temperature.  Practical  dairymen  usually  try  to  main- 
tain a  temperature  near  59  to  65  degrees  in  churning. 
The  preference  is  usually  for  the  lower  temperatures  be- 
cause of  the  better  quality  of  the  butter,  although  it  will 
require  a  longer  time  to  churn.  There  are  many  styles  of 
churns  on  the  market,  but  expert  butter-makers  usually 
prefer  some  form  of  revolving  box  or  barrel  churn,  claim- 
ing that  it  gives  a  butter  with  better  quality.  Where  the 
agitation  is  produced  by  paddles  the  grain  of  the  butter 
is  not  so  desirable  as  in  the  open-centered  churns. 


Farm  Dairying  257 

366.  Judging  Butter.  Butter  is  now  judged  by  a 
scale  of  points  just  as  the  breeds  of  live  stock  and  crops 
are.  The  points  of  most  importance  are  (1)  flavor, 
(2)  texture,  (3)  color,  (4)  salt,  and  (5)  package.  Varia- 
tions in  flavor  are  due  to  several  causes,  such  as  breed 
of  cows,  individuality  of  cow,  nature  of  feed,  acidity  of 
cream  and  kind  of  bacteria  in  the  cream.  Variations 
in  texture  are  due  chiefly  to  the  nature  of  the  feed  and 
the  temperature  at  which  the  cream  ripens,  and,  also, 
the  churning  temperature,  as  discussed  above. 

367.  Pasteurization.  One  way  of  keeping  milk 
longer  than  could  be  done  under  natural  conditions, 
consists  in  heating  to  a  temperature  of  160°  Fahr. 
and  then  rapidly  cooling.  This  method'  of  treating  milk 
is  known  as  Pasteurization,  and  takes  its  name  after 
Pasteur,  the  great  French  bacteriologist.  The  object 
of  heating  and  cooling  is  to  destroy  the  majority  of 
bacteria  present,  and  prevent  the  others  which  are  not 
affected  at  that  temperature,  from  becoming  active. 
The  temperature  given  above  is  deemed  sufficient  to 
destroy  all,  at  least  all  disease-producing,  germs  and  is 
not  high  enough  to  affect  the  flavor  of  the  milk. 

368.  Clarification.  We  have  just  observed  the 
practice  of  freeing  milk  from  bacteria  in  order  to  make 
it  "keep"  longer.  Now  let  us  note  the  practice  employed 
in  freeing  the  milk  from  undesirable  foreign  matter. 
It  matters  not  how  careful  the  milker  is  in  doing  his 
work,  there  is  always  more  or  less  foreign  matter,  which 
passes  through  a  ''strainer."  This  substance  may  be 
separated  from  the  milk  by  centrifugal  force.  The 
process  is  known  as  clarification,  and  the  machine 
used  is  known  as  a  clarifier.  The  machine  is  built  on 
precisely  the  same  plan  as  a  cream  separator. 


I 


PABT  III— SPECIAL  TOPICS 


CHAPTER   XXXIV 

THE  HOME  LOT 

369.  The  Decoration  of  a  Landscape  with  herbs, 
shrubs  and  trees  has  been  called  "picture-making  out- 
of-doors."  Whether  we  know  it  or  not,  all  of  us  have 
a  great  appreciation  of  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of 
landscapes.  We  recognize-  that  some  landscapes  are 
attractive,  or  that  the  surroundings  of  some  homes 
look  bleak.   Again,  there  is  the  little  cottage  of  the  new- 


Fig.  165.  Wheie  shrubs  are  needed.   After  Waugh,  Landscape  Gardening. 

(258) 


The  Home  Lot  259 

comer,  simple  though  it  may  be,  yet  we  say,  "It's  a  nice 
place."  Ask  us  why,  and  the  answer  is  a  very  uncertain 
one..  Why?  It's  because  we  fail  to  recognize  the  essen- 
tials of  a  good  picture.  A  good  picture  should  suggest 
themes  for  pleasant,  harmonious  thought.  '^Believing, 
as  we  do,  that  the  beauty  and  force  of  every  true  man's 
Ufe  or  occupation  depends  largely  on  his  pursuing  it 
frankly,  honestly,  openly,  with  all  the  individuality  of 
his  character,  we  would  have  his  house  and  home  help 
to  give  significance  to,  and  dignify  that  daily  life  and 
occupation  by  harmonizing  with  them." 

370.  Studying  Landscapes.  Compare  Fig.  165  with 
Fig.  166.  Manifestly,  one  is  more  pleasing  to  the  eye 
than  the  other,  but  why?  Some  shrubs  have  been  added, 
it  is  true,  but  it  is  not  the  shrubs  in  themselves  that  are 
so  noticeably  pleasing.  The  shrubs  cover  up  many  of 
the  harsh  geometrical  lines  and  make  the  landscape  look 


Fig.  166.    Where  shrabs  are  added.    Compare  with  Fig.  165. 


260 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


more  natural.  Had  the  shrubs  been  placed  in  the  open 
space  the  effect  would  not  have  been  half  so  pleasing. 
The  large  open  lawn  gives  an  attractive  setting  for  the 
trees  farther  on.  A  comparison  of  these  two  pictures 
teaches  us  the  A,  B,  C  of  landscape  art.    In  making 

pictures  on  the  land- 
scape, whether  around 
the  home,  church- 
yard, cemetery  or 
the  school  house,  we 
should 

(A)  Strive  to 
avoid  sharp,  straight 
lines; 

(B)  Preserve 
broad,  open  spaces ; 
(Figs.  167,  168). 

(C)  Plant  in 
masses,  and  look  to  nature  for  instructive  examples  in 
arranging  shrubs  and  trees. 

371.  Rural  Home  Grounds  should  have  such  group- 
ings of  lofty  trees  and  attractive  shrubs  that  the  sharp 
lines  of  houses,  barns  and  fences  shall  be  softened  into 
a  natural  picture.  The  appearance  of  the  home  lot 
should  suggest  more  than  mere  shelter  for  man  and  his 
useful  animals.  It  should  appear  as  though  the  house, 
barns  and  lots  were  built  in  what  was  naturally  an  at- 
tractive landscape.  Open  lawns  and  large  trees  are 
always  pleasing.  In  the  crowded  city  such  features 
may,  from  necessity,  be  dispensed  with,  but,  when  the 
country  house  is  set  in  a  small  yard,  it  impresses  us 
immediately  as  showing  too  great  a  contrast  with  the 
natural  openness  that  is  so  characteristic  of  rural  life. 


Fig.  167. 


A  plan  that  brings  the  plants 
into  prominence. 


The  Home  Lot 


261 


372.  Planning  a  Home  Lot  is  a  matter  requiring 
much  study.  Along  with  the  study  of  the  view  of  the 
home  site  from  within  and  without,  we  must  cautiously 
plan  for  all  the  conveniences  for  the  living  of  both  man 
and  beast.  The  location  of  the  house,  the  barns,  poultry 
houses,  roads,  gar- 
dens, orchards  and 
fences  should  first  be 
studied  from  the 
standpoint  of  conven- 
ience and  healthful- 
ness.  When  these 
features  are  planned, 
then  we  may  study 
how  to  complete  the 
picture  and  introduce 
those  features  that 
make  a  residence 
'^home-like," 

373.  Completing  the  Picture.  In  placing  the  trees, 
shrubs  and  flower-beds,  we  should  consider  first  the 
outlook  from  the  house, — the  view  that  we  will  see  most 
often.  Next  we  may  consider  the  view  from  the  highway. 
In  both  cases  the  openness  of  view  should  be  preserved. 
In  planting  the  trees  and  shrubs  we  are  using  them 
only  as  materials.  They  may  make  or  mar  the  view, 
according  to  the  way  we  arrange  them.    (Fig.  169.) 

374.  Locating  the  Plants.  In  making  a  plan,  the 
grouping  of  the  plants  should  be  carefully  worked  out. 
For  every  plant  to  be  used,  we  must  know  how  it  will 
look,  and  how  much  space  is  required  when  fully  mature. 
After  a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  plants  has  been 
gained,  we  may  mark  the  place  for  each  on  our  plan 


Fig.  168.  A  plan  that  makes  a  good  picture, 
whether  viewed  from  the  house  or  the 
highway. 


Fig.  169.  A  good  plan  for  the  arrangement  and  decoration  of  a  farm-house, 
buildings  and  grounds.  Make  a  list  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  your  local- 
ity that  would  be  suitable  for  the  above. 


The  Home  Lot  263 

(Fig.  169).  The  way  the  plants  are  grouped  makes  a 
great  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  place.  Every 
attractive  picture  has  some  one  central  object.  In  mak- 
ing a  picture  on  the  landscape,  the  home,  or  the  school- 
house  is  to  be  made  the  central  feature.  As  a  picture 
is  often  marred  by  a  poor  frame,  so  may  a  landscape 
lose  its  attractiveness  by  improper  use  of  plants. 

375.  Plants  to  Use.  Landscape  architects  are  also  gar- 
deners in  that  they  must  know  the  character  of  many 
kinds  of  plants  and  the  conditions  under  which  they 
succeed.  In  selecting  trees  and"  shrubs  for  home  plant- 
ing, it  is  important  that  sorts  be  used  that  succeed. 
Native  wild  plants  should  always  be  considered.  Often 
much  time,  labor  and  money  are  wasted  in  trying  to  grow 
foreign  plants  unsuited  to  the  climate  or  soil.  Many 
native  or  wild  plants  give  splendid  results  when  planted 
in  well-prepared  ground.  By  observing  the  plants  that 
are  grown  on  other  persons^  grounds,  we  may  often  learn 
of  the  good  sorts  and  avoid  undesirable  varieties.  In 
selecting  the  plants,  it  is  always  advisable  to  consult 
the  local  nurseryman. 

375a.  Make  a  list,  using  the  names  given  in  the  nursery  cata- 
logues, of  all  the  different  kinds  of  trees,  shrubs,  perennial  and 
annual  flowers  that  grow  well  in  your  locality.  Mention  the  location 
in  the  community  of  one  or  more  plants  of  each  sort.  Da  not  for- 
get to  consider  the  native  plants. 


CHAPTER   XXXV 
SCHOOL  GARDENS 

376.  The  School  is  a  place  where  many  of  our  ideas 
and  ideals  are  formed.  It  should  be  more  than  a  place 
where  we  take  short  cuts  to  knowledge,  that  is,  learning 
from  teachers  and  books  what  others  have  found  out 
by  observation  and  investigation.  Nature  does  not 
teach  by  words,  pages  or  chapters.  To  understand 
nature's  forces  and  how  to  control  them,  for  our 
benefit,  we  must  get  close  to  her  creatures. 

377.  The  School  Garden  should  be  a  place  to  learn 
what  is  true,  beautiful  and  useful  about  plants,  insects, 
soils,  birds,  sunshine  and  rain.  We  may  do  this  by 
working  with  nature,  by  growing  a  small  number  of  sev- 
eral kinds  of  plants  and  observing  their  needs  as  they 
grow  from  seed  to  fruitage.  In  outward  appearance, 
school  gardens  do  not  differ  from  home  gardens.  All 
the  common  sorts  of  plants  may  be  grown  in  a  school 
garden,  though  we  observe  and  study  them  more  closely. 
Some  plants  must  be  cultivated  one  way,  while  others 
require  different  care.  In  a  school  garden  we  seek  the 
explanation  of  the  differences.  If  we  grow  a  small 
number  of  plants  and  observe  the  progress  of  each 
separate  plant,  we  shall  learn  a  great  deal  about  how  to 
care  for  a  large  crop.    (See  Frontispiece.) 

378.  Laying  Out  a  School  Garden.  When  a  piece  of 
ground  has  been  secured  it  should  be  cut  up  into  a 
number  of  small   gardens — one  for  each   student.     A 

(264) 


266  ,.         Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

diagram  should  be  made  showing  all  the  walks  and  the 
location  of  each  student's  plot.  Space  should  be  left 
for  walks  between  the  gardens  sufficient  to  allow  access 
on  all  sides.  The  main  walks  may  be  five  to  eight  feet 
wide,  and  the  smaller  walks  only  eighteen  inches  wide. 
A  larger  plot  should  be  left  for  growing  corn,  pumpkins 
and  other  plants  too  large  for  the  individual  gardens. 
All  students  should  take  part  in  caring  for  the  large  plot. 
The  laying  out  of  the  entire  garden,  and  all  questions 
about  how  it  should  be  managed  should  be  fully  discussed 
by  all  students.  Each  student  should  make  a  plan  and 
submit  it  to  the  teacher,  who  will  select  the  best. 

379.  Individual  Gardens.  Every  student — boy  and 
girl — should  have  a  small  plot  of  ground  on  which  they 
will  begin  work  in  the  fall  at  the  opening  of  school. 

Each  student  should  make  a  plan  for  his  or  her 
garden,  covering  the  preparation  of  the  ground,  selecting 
the  kinds  of  plants  or  seeds  to  be  grown,  and  all  other 
important  features.  If  the  teacher  approves  the  plan, 
the  work  may  be  begun.  If  any  changes  are  desired,  the 
consent  of  the  teacher  should  be  secured  before  carrying 
them  out.  The  students  remain  responsible  for  the 
success  and  appearance  of  their  plots.  Some  gardens 
will  be  so  fine  that  they  will  show  the  importance  of 
care.  No  student  should  allow  his  or  her  garden  to  be 
pointed  out  as  an  example  of  what  neglect  will  do. 

380.  Selecting  Plants.  In  selecting  plants  for  the 
garden,  preference  should  be  given  to  kinds  that  will 
mature  during  the  school  term.  Some  hardy  sorts  may 
be  planted  in  the  fall. 

Many  plants  mature  so  quickly  that  two  or  more 
crops  may  be  grown  on  the  same  land.  The  plan  for 
the  garden  should  show  how  and  when  the  land  will  be 


School  Garden 


267 


prepared,  where  each  kind  of  plant  will  be  in  the  garden, 
how  and  when  each  kind  will  be  planted.  Each  student 
should  strive  to  do  well.    Figs.  170  and  171. 

381.  The  School  Grounds  should  be  made  attractive 
by  planting  trees,  shrubs,  flowers  and  vines.  Just  as 
every  one  takes  pride  in  the  appearance  of  the  home  lot, 
so  does  the  community  feel  a  pride  in  keeping  the  school 
grounds  in  order.  The  school  grounds  should  be  kept  in 
order  by  the  pupils  even  during  vacation. 


Dwarf  Nasturtium 

CO      ^ 

Radish 

2 

Radish 

•a 

Radish 

1 

Lettuce 

^   [ 

Lettuce 

jU 

Beans 

a 
3 

Beans 

c 

n  , 

Beets 

Beets 

o 

Beans 

£ 

Turnips 

1 

s 

o 

1 

White  Oats 

Red  Oats 

Barley- 

Wheat 

Fig 


.  170.    Plan  of  a  garden  with 
vegetable  and  field  crops 


Petunia 

Petunia 

Zinnia 

Zinnia 

Ageratum 

Nasturtium 

Radish 

>> 

Radish 

Lettuce 

Lettuce 

Beets 

1 

Beets 

1 

o 

Beans 

Beans 

f^ 

Poppies 

Shirley  Poppies 
Plant  in  Fall 

Fifi 

.171.     Plan  of  a  garden  with 
flowers  and  vegetables 

CHAPTER   XXXVl 
FORESTRY 

382.  A  Forest  is  a  considerable  piece  of  land  covered 
with  large  trees.  Forests  are  directly  important  to 
mankind  as  sources  of  fuel,  lumber,  heavy  round  timber, 
.such  as  posts,  piling,  and  telegraph  poles;  also,  cooper- 
age stock,  tan  bark,  wood  pulp  for  paper-making,  rosin, 
cork  and  many  other  useful  supplies.  They  are  also 
important  because  of  their  good  effect  in  regulating 
stream  flow,  preventing  the  erosion  of  the  land  and, 
probably,  in  modifying  climate. 

383.  The  Need  of  Forests  was  not  fully  recognized 
by  the  early  settlers  in  timbered  regions.  The  heavy 
timber  was  looked  upon  as  an  obstacle  to  rapid  progress; 
but,  in  recent  years,  when  railroads  are  at  hand  to  haul 
the  forest  products  wherever  they  may  be  needed,  they 
are  quite  valuable.  Before  a  piece  of  timbered  land  is 
destroyed,  the  probable  value  of  the  annual  harvest  of 
forest  products  should  be  carefully  considered.  America 
is  now  repeating  the  forestry  experiences  of  European 
countries.  The  forests  were  first  destroyed  to  make 
room  for  the  fields,  gardens  and  orchards,  and,  as  the 
farming  interest  reduced  the  timbered  areas,  fuel  and 
lumber  supplies  became  more  difficult  to  secure.  Then 
the  forest  was  looked  upon  as  something  of  value  that 
should  not  be  destroyed.  Where  the  natural  covering  of 
the  hills  and  bottoms  has  been  removed,  the  bad  effects 
caused  by  the  washing  of  the  soil  from  the  hills  and  the 
flooding  of  the  valleys  have  been  plainly  seen. 

(268) 


Forestry  269 

384.  Systematic  Forestry  teaches  us  to  remove  only 
the  matured  products,  leaving  the  young  timber  to 
grow.  France  and  many  European  countries  have  had 
to  restore,  though  at  great  expense,  the  forest  condi- 
tions to  large  areas  that  had  been  thoughtlessly  destroyed. 
In  many  of  the  Old  World  countries  no  man  is  allowed 
to  destroy  a  mature  forest  tree  without  permission  of  a 
forest  official,  and  this  is  often  given  only  when  another 
is  started  to  take  its  place.  Such  restrictions  seem 
needlessly  severe  to  us,  but  is  it  improbable  that,  some 
day,  we  may  find  some  such  restriction  necessary  for 
the  public  good? 

385.  The  Exhaustion  of  Our  Forest  Resources  is  now 
going  on  at  a  rapid  rate.  Our  forested  areas  are  being 
rapidly  reduced.  Fig.  172  illustrates  the  present  differ- 
ence between  the  use  of  for- 
est products  and  the  rate  of 
increase  by  growth.  The  east- 
ern states  have  long  since 
all  but  exhausted  their  na- 
tural forests.  They  once 
secured  the  needed  supplies 
of  lumber  from  the  virgin 
forests  of  the  north  central 
states,  but  today  those  areas 
are  almost  exhausted  and  pig.  172.  Excess  o7annuai  cut 
the  large  lumber  supplies  ""^^^  ^^^"^^  ^°^^^*  s'"°^*^- 
are  now  furnished  by  the  northwestern  and  southern 
states.  The  citizens  of  many  states  have  heretofore 
referred  with  pride  to  the  great  value  of  their  annual  crop 
of  forest  products;  but  the  time  has  come  in  many  states 
where  the  crop  removed  is  greater  than  the  crop  that 
grows.   Scientific  forestry  does  not  mean  that  the  use  of 


270  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

forests  should  cease;  but,  rather,  that  in  their  use  the 
needs  of  the  future  shall  be  considered  in  their  relation 
to  man  and  his  various  industries. 

386.  Conserving  Our  Forest  Resources  is  a  national 
need.  In  former  times  the  lumberman  cut  everything. 
The  young  timber  was  needlessly  destroyed.  Now, 
however,  they  have  reahzed  the  value  of  the  small 
seedlings  and  saplings,  and  seek  to  protect  them  from 
forest  fires  and  the  grazing  of  stock.  All  the  conditions 
that  favor  the  growth  of  the  young  trees  are  carefully 
considered  by  the  modern  forester. 

387.  Our  Forest  Reserves.  Our  government,  observ- 
ing the  great  hardships  resulting  from  an  insufficient 
supply  of  forest  products  in  the  Old  World,  and  how 
quickly  the  forests  of  the  East  and  middle  states  have 
been  reduced,  has  set  aside  large  tracts  of  timbered 
regions  in  the  western  states  as  National  Forest  Reserves. 
These  reserves  form  but  a  small  part  of  our  present 
forest  resources;  but,  taken  with  the  privately  owned 
forests,  are  sufficient  to  supply  our  needs  if  properly 
used.  Forestry  plantings  have  been  maintained  in  older 
countries  for  long  periods  and  experience  has  shown 
that  such  plantings  yield  an  annual  revenue  equal  to 
four  to  eight  dollars  per  acre. 

388.  The  Forest  Service  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  and  the  Forestry  Commissioners 
provided  for  in  many  states,  study  the  problems  of 
forest  management  and  issue  bulletins  of  information 
for  the  instruction  of  all  who  have  land  suitable  for 
timber-growing. 

389.  The  Farm  Wood-Lot.  In  many  sections  the 
waste  lowland  and  the  hill  land  may  be  planted  to  trees 
to   supply   fuel,   poles   and  the   many   special   timbers 


Forestry 


271 


needed  on  every  farm.  In  many  cases  such  lands  have 
been  made  to  return  to  the  farm  products  equal  in  value 
to  the  returns  of  the  regular  field  crops.  The  value  of  a 
wood-lot  will  depend  much  upon  the  care,  nature  of  the 
soil,  and  the  kinds  of  trees  planted.  Of  course,  it  takes 
some  years  before  the  first  harvest  can  be  made;  but 
this  may  be  greatly  shortened  by  planting  thick  and 


Fig.  173.   A  catalpa  plantation.   Every  farm  should  have  a  wood-lot. 
From  Year  Book,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1899. 


272  Elementary   Principles  of  Agriculture 

cutting  out  the  less  desirable  forms  as  the  growth 
thickens.  Varieties  for  wood-lot  planting  should  be 
selected  to  suit  the  locality.  Hardy  catalpa,  black 
locust,  black  walnut,  honey  locust,  Bois  d'Arc,  or 
Osage  orange,  mulberries,  and  many  other  sorts,  have 
proven  to  be  well  suited  to  many  sections  of  the  South 
and  West.  Not  every  wood-lot  has  turned  out  a  success; 
but  a  larger  number  have.  Many  failures  are  due  to  neg- 
lect or  to  the  use  of  species  unsuited  to  the  conditions. 
389a.  A  farmer  planted  a  large  acreage  of  bottom  land  to  hardy 
catalpas,  in  rows  six  feet  apart  and  four  feet  apart  in  the  row.  At 
the  end  of  ten  years  he  found  the  books  showed  the  following  items: 
Cost  of  rent  on  land  for  ten  years,  seedlings,  planting,  cultivating, 
trimming,  marketing,  etc.,  $56.  Value  of  stakes  and  small  posts 
secured,  early  thinning,  $63.  Stock  on  hand:  678  posts,  first  class, 
10  cents  each;  712  posts,  second  class,  7  cents  each;  616  posts, 
third  class,  4  cents  each.  What  was  the  approximate  value  per 
acre  per  year  of  the  crop? 

390.  Windbreaks.  In  open  regions,  windbreaks, 
formed  by  growing  shrubs  and  trees,  have  been  found  to 
be  quite  beneficial  because  of  the  protection  they  give 
to  growing  crops  and  orchards,  or  to  stock.  Windbreaks 
reduce  the  evaporation  from  the  soil  and  from  the 
plants  themselves.  They  often  prevent  the  drifting  of 
the  soil  in  open,  sandy  regions.  They  also  protect  stock 
from  cold  winds  in  winter  and  hot  winds  in  summer.  In 
regions  that  most  need  windbreaks,  it  is  most  difficult  to 
get  the  trees  to  grow.  The  plan  that  has  proven  most 
satisfactory  is  to  make  plantings  of  arborvitse,  locusts, 
Osage  orange,  red  cedar,  blackberries,  green  ash,  or  other 
species  in  wide  rows  and  cultivate  the  trees  until  they 
become  thoroughly  established.  It  is  not  advisable  how- 
ever, to  use  cedars  in  windbreaks  for  apple  orchards, 
because  they  aid  in  the  spread  of  the  apple  rust. 


CHAPTER   XXXVII 


FARM  MACHINERY 


By  PROF.  J.  B.  DAVIDSON,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering, 
Iowa  State  C!ollege 

391.  Progress  in  Agriculture  owes  much  to  the  intro- 
duction of  machine  methods  for  doing  hand  labor.  When 
the  savage  began  to  plant  seeds  with  a  sharp  stick  in- 
stead of  depending  on  wild  nature,  the  idea  was  certainly 
a  progressive  one.  When  he  learned  that  destroying  the 
weeds  that  came  up  with  those  seeds  would  add  to  the 
quantity  and  the  certainty  of  the  harvest,  he  ceased  to 
be  a  savage.  Still  again,  when  he  learned  to  prepare 
the  ground  and  cultivate  his  crops,  civilization  was 
well  estabUshed.  ''Civilization  begins  and  ends  with  the 
plow,"  and  yet  the  plow  remained  a  crude  wooden  tool 
until  within  comparatively  recent  times. 

392.  Tillage  Tools  were  not  noticeably  improved 
until  chemists  and  botanists  began  to  study  the  soil  and 
formed  a  theory  about  the  relation  of  the  soil  to  the 
plant.  Machines  are  not  invented  until  the  need  for 
them  is  recognized.  The  ideas  about  the  relation  of  the 
plant  to  the  soil  given  in  modern  books  would  have 
been  wondrous  strange  to  our  great  -  grandparents. 
McMaster*  tells  us  that  ''The  Massachusetts  farmer 
who  witnessed  the  Revolution,  plowed  his  land  with  a 
wooden  bull-plow,  sowed  his  grain  broadcast,  and,  when 
it  was  ripe,  cut  it  with  a  scythe  and  thrashed  it  out  on 
his  barn  floor  with   a  flail."    These  implements  were 

♦History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States 
R  (273) 


274  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

similar  to  the  ones  used  by  the  Egyptians  three  thou- 
sand years  before.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  many  of 
the  greatest  of  the  early  Americans  were  interested  in 
the  development  of  the  plow,  the  fundamental  imple- 
ment of  tillage.  Thomas  Jefferson  and  Daniel  Webster 
planned  plows  and  had  them  constructed,  which  were 
improvements  over  preceding  types.  In  1797,  Charles 
Newbold  introduced  the  iron  plow,  but  it  is  recorded 
that  the  farmers  of  that  time  refused  to  use  it,  claiming 
that  so  much  iron  drawn  through  the  soil  poisoned  the 


Fig.  174,     Daniel  Webster's  famous  plow  had  a  beam  9  feet  long. 

land  and  increased  the  growth  of  weeds.  This  latter 
superstition  delayed  the  general  acceptance  of  improved 
plows  for  many  years.  The  use  of  iron  and  steel  plows 
did  not  become  general  until  about  1830.  Many  im- 
provements were  made  in  the  construction  and  form  of 
the  points  and  mold-boards,  adapting  them  to  various 
kinds  of  soils.  The  piodern  plow  is  familiar  to  all.  The 
recent  types  of  sulky  plows  enable  the  plowman  to 
ride  in  a  comfortable  seat,  and,  when  properly  ad- 
justed, so  that  the  pressure  due  to  the  raising  and  turn- 
ing of  the  furrow  sUce  is  reduced,  have  no  heavier  draft 
than  the  walking  plow.  The  single-shovel  cultivator  has 
given  way  to  the  double-shovel  implement,  and  this,  in 
turn,  to  the  straddle-row  cultivator,  and,  in  many  sec- 
tions, the  two-  and  three-row  cultivators  are  finding 
favor. 


I 


Farm  Machinery 


275 


393.  Harvesting  Machinery.  Perhaps  no  Une  of 
development  has  assisted  agriculture  so  much  as  machine 
harvesting.  The  grass  hook  and  the  scythe  were  long 
in  use.  When  a  Scotchman  put  fingers  to  the  scythe, 
forming  the  cradle,  it  was  heralded  as  a  great  invention 
because  it  enabled  one  man  to  do  the  work  of  several 
equipped  with  the  older  implements.  Obed  Hussey 
and  Cyrus  H.  McCormick* 
stand  out  prominently  in  the 
development  of  the  reaper, 
which  was  later  improved  by 
many  others,  among  whom 
Palmer,  Williams,  Marsh 
Brothers,  Spaulding  and  Ap- 
pleby should  be  mentioned, 
leading  up  to  the  self-binder 
in  1878.  It  appears  marvel- 
ous to  find  that  there  has 
taken  place  within  sixty 
years — within  the  life  of  a 
single  man — the  universal  in- 
troduction of  machines  which 
are  so  efficient  and  still  require  the  guidance  of  but 
one  man  to  do  the  work  of  many. 

394.  Farm  Machinery.  The  general  introduction  of 
speciaUzed   farm    machines, — implements  too  complex 

♦Cyrus  H.  McCormick  was  bom  in  Rockbridge  county,  Virginia,  in  1809. 
His  father  had  constructed  a  reaping  machine,  though  his  efforts,  like  those 
of  many  others  along  the  same  Une,  were  not  successful.  Young  Cyrus  had 
watched  his  father's  experiments  and  cherished  the  thought  that  some  day  he 
might  solve  the  difficult  problem.  He  abandoned  the  principles  that  had 
formed  the  underlying  features  of  his  father's  machine.  The  elder  McCormick 
did  not  approve  of  the  young  man's  plans,  but  he  put  no  obstacles  in  his  way, 
and  offered  him  the  facilities  of  his  little  blacksmith  shop  to  build  his  first 
machine.  Young  McCormick  completed  his  first  reaper  in  time  to  give  it  a 
trial  in  the  harvest  of  1831,  and  it  worked  successfully  that  year. 


Fig.  175 


H.  McCormick. 


276'  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

to  be  called  tools, — has  made  the  modern  farmer  a 
mechanic.  Modern  haying  implements,  consisting  of 
mowers,  rakes,  hay-loaders,  stackers  and  presses,  have 
greatly  reduced  the  hand  work  in  hay-making.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  the  farmer  of  1850  spent  eleven 
hours  in  cutting  and  storing  a  ton  of  hay,  while,  under 
modern  methods,  the  time  has  been  reduced  to  one  hour 
and  thirty-nine  minutes.    There  are  machines  for  every 


Fig.  176.   McCormick  reaping  machine,  1834. 

class  of  farm  work :  Threshing-machines  for  threshing 
grain;  shellers,  for  shelling  corn  from  the  cob;  buskers 
and  shredders,  for  removing  the  ears  from  the  corn- 
stalk and  converting  the  latter  into  palatable  food  for 
farm  animals,  and  many  others.  This  is  true  to  such  an 
extent  that  large  farms  have  nearly  as  much  invested 
in  machinery  as  some  factories.  Many  forms  of  machinery 
used  on  the  farm  require  considerable  power.  Wind- 
mills, gasoline  engines,  and  even  steam-engines,  are  not 


Farm  Machinery 


277 


infrequently  in  regular  use  for  pumping  water,  grinding 
grain,  separating  milk  and  other  special  operations. 
These  motors  increase  the  capacity  of  the  farm  worker 
by  enabling  him  to  use  and  direct  more  power,  resulting 
in  more  economical  production.   Fig.  177. 

395.  Power  Versus  Hand  Labor.  The  change  from 
hand  tools  to  implements  and  special  machinery  has 
lead  to  the  use  of  more  power  for  each  worker,  and  the 


Fig.  177.   A  suggestion  for  the  use  of  power  on  the  farm.   From  un 
agricultural  implement  catalogue. 

amount  is  governed  somewhat  by  the  ability  of  the 
worker.  Man,  when  working  alone,  is  able  to  develop 
only  about  one-eighth  horse-power.  When  he  uses  one 
horse,  his  capacity  to  work  is  increased  eightfold,  and 
if  two  horses  are  used,  sixteenfold.  The  American  farmer 
is  not  content  to  let  his  brain  drive  a  one-horse  power 
when  two,  three  or  four  may  be  used  to  advantage. 
This  demand  for  more  power  has  stimulated  the  breed- 
ing of  larger  horses  for  draft  purposes. 

396.  Care  of  Machinery.    The  operation   of   many 


278  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

forms  of  farm  machinery  often  taxes  the  mechanical 
skill  of  the  average  worker.  Much  loss  results  from  the 
neglect  to  repair  agricultural  machines  promptly  and 
systematically.  Many  machines  are  discarded  which 
would  be  almost  as  good  as  new  if  the  broken  parts 
were  replaced.  Costly  agricultural  machines  should  be 
kept  under  shelter  when  not  in  actual  use,  to  lengthen 
their  period  of  usefulness. 

397.  The  Influence  of  Agricultural  Machinery  on  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  farm  productions  has  brought 
many  changes.  The  year  1850  has  been  mentioned  as 
marking  the  transition  from  the  use  of  implements  for 
hand-production  to  those  for  machine-production.  The 
increase  in  production  per  farm  worker  under  modern 
methods  is  most  marked.  The  Roman  farmer  in  the 
time  of  Columella  spent  four  and  six-tenths  days  in 
growing  a  bushel  of  wheat.  It  is  stated  in  the  Thirteenth 
Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Labor  that  the  American  farmer  spent  three  hours  in 
1830,  under  hand  methods,  in  producing  a  bushel  of 
wheat,  at  a  cost  of  17.7  cents,  while  now  the  same  result 
is  secured  in  nine  minutes  at  a  cost  of  3.5  cents.  In  1800, 
97  per  cent  of  our  people  were  living  on  farms,  or  in 
small  towns,  depending  upon  agriculture  for  food; 
yet,  with  all  this  army  of  workers,  the  country  raised 
only  five  and  five-tenths  bushels  of  wheat  per  person. 
In  1900,  while  approximately  only  one-third  of  the 
population  lived  on  farms,  the  production  of  wheat 
was  ten  bushels  per  capita,  one-half  of  which  was  in 
excess  of  our  needs. 

398.  Other  Changes  in  Farm  Conditions  have  been 
made,  at  least  in  part,  as  a  result  of  the  change  from 
hand  methods  to  machine  methods  of  production.    An 


Farm  Machinery 


279 


old  method  of  threshing  grain  was  by  the  treading  of 
animals,  but  bread  made  from  wheat  threshed  in  this 
manner  would  not  be  salable  today.  Women  are  no 
longer  required  to  do  heavy  field  work  as  they  did  at 
one  time.  The  working  day  has  fewer  hours  and  the 
wages  of  the  farm-worker  has  increased  many  fold. 
"All  intelligent  expert  observation,"  says  Dodge, 
"declares  it  beneficial.  It  has  reUeved  the  laborer  of 
much  drudgery;  made  his  work  lighter  and  his  hours  of 
service  shorter;  stimulated  his  mental  faculties;  given 
equiUbrium  of  effort  to  mind  and  body;  made  the  laborer 
a  more  efficient  worker,  a  broader  man  and  a  better 
citizen." 


Fig.  178.     The  modern  harvester  cuts,  bundles,  binds  and  deposits  in 
piles  ready  for  shocking. 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII 
PUBLIC   HIGHWAYS* 

399.  National  Roads.  In  1806,  Congress  authorized 
the  construction  of  a  national  turnpike,  from  Cumber- 
land, Md.,  to  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  continued  to  make 
appropriations  until  1838.  This  road  still  exists  and  many- 
sections  of  it  are  now  in  good  condition.  Most  of  the 
national  appropriations  for  public  roads  were  primarily 
for  military  roads,  but  the  federal  government  has  made 
no  appropriations  for  road  building  since  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  war.  Since  1892,  Congress  has  provided  for  the 
"Office  of  Public  Road  Enquiry,"  for  the  purpose  of  exper- 
imenting on  problems  in  road  construction  and  studying 
the  problems  of  road  administration  and  maintenance. 

400.  Building  and  Maintaining  Public  Highways. 
Most  of  the  states  still  have  their  roads  in  charge  of 
county  officers  or  other  persons  who,  while  generally 
competent  in  ordinary  business  undertakings,  are  not 
students  of  the  technical  problems  of  road  construction 
or  maintenance.  In  nearly  every  foreign  country,  road 
building  and  road  maintenance  is  in  charge  of  expert 
road  engineers.  In  recent  years,  several  states  have 
established  the  office  of  ''State  Highway  Commissioner," 
and  provided  for  the  state,  county  and  precinct  to  share 
the  expense  of  preparing  or  building  roads.  This  is 
known  as  the  "state-aid  plan." 

401.  The  Need  of  Public  Highways.    Good  highways 

*  Acknowledgments  are  due  Mr.  T.  W.  Larkin  for  generous  assistance  in  the 
preparation  of  this  chapter. 

(280) 


Public  Highways  281 

ought  to  be  maintained  by  and  for  all  the  people.  They 
make  travel  to  and  between  cities,  towns,  neighbor- 
hoods, schools  and  churches  easy,  quick  and  economical. 
They  not  only  save  valuable  time,  reduce  the  cost  and 
increase  the  comforts  of  overland  travel,  but  the  schools 
and  churches  are  more  accessible, — hence  more  useful 
and  effective.  The  improvement  of  pubUc  highways 
has  for  years  been  strongly  advocated  by  the  brightest 
minds  of  the  country,  and  these  advocates,  after  point- 
ing out  the  importance  of  such  improvement  to  the 
material  advancement  of  the  agricultural  and  commercial 
interests,  dwell  upon  the  benefits  to  the  social  fabric, 
which  means  so  much  to  public  progress.  It  is  urged 
that  improved  roads  greatly  lessen  the  cost  of  trans- 
porting the  products  of  the  farm  to  the  market,  thus 
increasing  the  earning  capacity  of  the  producer  and  like- 
wise increasing  the  value  of  the  lands  having  access  to 
such  roads.  It  has  been  said  that  wherever  the  best 
roads  are  found  there  are  also  found  the  best  homes  and 
the  greatest  perfection  of  Hving  conditions  on  the  farm. 
Good  roads  are  very  essential  to  the  greatest  degree  of 
comfort  in  rural  living.  Good  roads  make  possible  the 
profitable  employment  of  teams  at  times  when  field 
work  cannot  be  done,  thus  reducing  the  amount  of  idle 
time,  and  enable  the  marketing  of  produce  when  market 
conditions  are  most  favorable.  It  is  also  notable  that, 
in  communities  where  the  highways  have  been  improved, 
social  conditions  are  improved  by  reason  of  the  ease 
of  neighborhood  visits  and  attendance  upon  social 
events. 

402.  When  Shall  Public  Roads  Be  Built.  Good  com- 
mon highways  do  not  exist  naturally.  They  must  be 
made  and  kept  in  repair.    If  the  expense  of  hauling  the 


282..  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

products  of  the  farms  and  mills  back  and  forth  is  greater 
on  bad  roads  than  on  good  roads,  we  might  designate 
this  difference  as  the  "bad-roads  tax."  If  the  bad-roads 
tax  on  a  community  is  enough  to  build  and  maintain 
good  roads,  the  wisdom  of  the  building  is  at  once  appar- 
ent. Statistics  compiled  by  students  of  the  problem 
of  pubhc  highways  say  that  the  heaviest  road  tax  is 
paid  by  the  farmer  who  is  compelled  to  haul  his  prod- 
ucts over  a  neglected  road. 


Fig.  179.   If  fifty  tons  of  freight  are  hauled  over  such  a  road  daily,  what  is  the 
cost  to  the  community  for  a  year? 

402a.  Problem.  Farmer  Jones  has  a  farm  of  160  acres,  six  miles 
from  the  railroad.  He  raises  corn,  cotton  and  oats  as  money  crops. 
He  has  40  acres  in  corn,  averaging  40  bushels  per  acre — 1,600 
bushels — 115,200  pounds — 576  tons.  His  roads  are  such  that  in 
good  weather  he  can  haul  one  ton  and  make  one  trip  a  day.  If  a 
driver  and  team  be  valued  at  $2.50  per  day,  how  much  does  it  cost 
per  ton  to  deliver  his  corn  to  market?  How  much  per  ton  per  mile? 
(41  cents)    Would  this  latter  figure  be  approximately  true  whether 


Public  Highways 


283 


the  hauling  trip  were  two  or  six  miles?  How  much  would  it  cost  to 
haul  the  1,600  bushels  to  market?  Figure  cost  per  bushel;  cost  per 
acre;  approximate  tax  on  the  entire  farm. 

402b.  Problem.  The  road  traveled  by  Farmer  Jones  was  graded, 
ditched  and  drained,  bridges  put  in  at  bad  places,  hills  cut  down  to 
reduce  the  grade,  and  so  improved  that  the  same  team  could  haul 
3,000  pounds  and  make  two  trips  per  day.  Make  similar  calcula- 
tions as  above.  Determine  the  approximate  "bad-roads  tax" 
on  Farmer  Jones. 


Fig.  180.  If  fifty  tons  are  hauled  over  such  a  road  daily,  what  is  the  cost  to 
the  community  for  a  year? — A  demonstration  road  being  built  by  OflSce  of 
Road  Inquiry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

403.  Cost  of  Overland  Transportation.  In  some 
investigations  made  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  it  was  found  that  the  average  cost  of 
hauling  twenty-three  different  farm  products  to  market 
represented  a  sum  equal  to  1.4  per  cent  of  the  value 
for  cotton,  2.7  per  cent  for  wool,  4.3  per  cent  for  peanuts, 
5.2  per  cent  for  rice,  5.3  per  cent  for  flax  seed,  7.2  per 
cent  for  wheat,  7.7  per  cent  for  oats,  and  9.6  for  corn. 


284,  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

The  general  average  cost  on  all  crops  was  found  to  be 
5.22  per  cent  of  the  value. 

The  cost  per  ton  per  mile  figured  on  actual  loads  and 
cost  of  hauling  averaged  25  cents  divided  as  follows: 
15  cents  for  flax  seed;  16  cents  for  barley;  19  cents  for 
wheat,  rye,  hops,  hay  and  corn;  22  cents  for  wool  and 
potatoes;  27  cents  for  cotton  and  cotton  seed;  25  cents 
for  apples  and  live  hogs;  30  to  31  cents  for  peanuts  and 
fresh  vegetables.  These  figures  were  based  on  reports  from 
all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  of  course  are  merely 
averages  for  all  sorts  of  roads.  In  some  cases  the  cost 
was  greater  and  in  others  less  than  the  figures  given. 

The  difference  in  cost  of  hauling  over  good  roads  and 
poor  roads  is  shown  by  the  following  figures  of  cost  of 
hauling  per  ton  per  mile,  based  on  European  investi- 
gations: 

'^  Per  ton  nule 
On  broken  stone  roads,  dry  and  in  good  con- 
dition   8.0  cents 

On  broken  stone  roads,  ordinary  condition 11.9  cents 

On  earth  roads  containing  ruts  and  mud 39.0  cents 

On  sandy  roads  when  wet 32.6  cents 

On  sandy  roads  when  dry 64.0  cents 

404.  Cost  of  Steam  Transportation.  The  average 
freight  rate  by  rail  per  ton  mile  for  1906  was  $0.00766 
per  ton  mile.  Average  cost  by  ocean  freight  New  York 
to  Liverpool,  a  distance  of  3,100  miles,  was  in  1906 
$1,006  per  ton  on  wheat,  or  $0.0003  per  ton  mile.  The 
great  significance  of  these  figures  is  shown  when  com- 
pared with  the  following: 

^  Per  ton  mile 

Average  rate  on  country  roads 25  cents 

Average  rate  for  corn  on  country  roads 19  cents 

Average  rate  for  corn  on  hard  roads 10  cents 

405.  How  the  Road  Surface  Affects  the  Draft.    The 

firmness  and  smoothness  of  the  road-bed  affects  the 
draft  required  to  move  a  load  very  materially.    The 


Public  Highways 


285 


following  figures  based  on  actual  tests  will  enable  one 
to  see  at  a  glance  the  great  value  of  good  road-beds.. 
If  a  horse  has  a  load  that  he  can  just  draw  on  a  leyel 
road  of  iron  rails,  it  would  require  the  power  of  one  and 
one-half  horses  to  draw  the  same  load  on  hard  asphalt, 
three  and  one-half  on  smooth  block  pavement,  seven 
on  cobble-stone  pavement,  thirteen  on  bedded  cobble 
stone,  twenty  on  an  ordinary  earth  road,  and  forty  on 
a  sandy  road. 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  tests  made 
with  an  ordinary  wagon  equipped  with  an  automatic 
scale  or  dynamometer,  used  to  measure  the  traction, 
or  pull,  in  pounds: 


Wide  tires,  4  inches 
Load  weight,  4,345  lbs. 

Narrow  tires,  li  inches 
Load  weight,  4,235  lbs. 

Character  of  surface 

Starting 
Lbs. 

Average  pull 

Starting 
Lbs 

Aver,  pull 
Lbs. 

On  block  pavement. . 

Hard  sandy  roads 

Good      level      gravel 
roads 

350 
700 

600 

800 

1,050 

100 

275 

175 
550 
550 

900-1,600 

300 

725 

650 
900 

75 
300 

175 

Soft  muddy  roads. . .  . 

Deep  muddy  roads. .  . 

On  muddy  dirt  roads 
with  ruts  made  by 
narrow  tires. , 

500 

Wide  tires,  3  inches 
Load  weight,  4,590  lbs. 

Narrow  tires,  1^  inches 
Load  weight,  4,590  lbs. 

Character  of  surface 

Starting 
Lbs. 

Average  pull 

Starting 
Lbs. 

Aver,  pull 
Lbs. 

Across    fields    cutting 

sod  1^  inches 

Good  hard  roads 

On  pavement 

1,100 
700 

550 
350 
125 

1,250 
850 

650 
350 

286  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

Other  results  have  shown  that  to  draw  a  ton  on  hard, 
,smooth  macadam  road  required  45  pounds  pull,  on  hard 
rolled  gravel  road  75  pounds,  and  on  earth  roads  224 
pounds.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  a  good  road-bed 
enables  a  horse  to  draw  from  two  to  five  times  as  much 
on  level  roads  as  on  rough  roads. 

406.  How  the  Grade  Affects  the  Draft.  In  improving 
roads,  it  is  very  important  that  the  steep  hills  be  avoided 
by  cutting  down  at  top  and  filling  in  at  bottom,  or  by 
putting  in  bridges.  This  work  is  often  very  expensive 
and,  wherever  possible  in  laying  out  a  road,  the  expert 
engineer  will  throw  his  line  along  the  side  and  around 
the  end  of  steep  hills,  even  though  the  distance  be  some- 
what greater,  for  the  increased  travel  is  more  than  offset 
by  the  increased  hauling  capacity.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  avoid  a  considerable  grade  in  constructing  a  road 
over  a  hill.  It  often  happens  that  a  road  may  be  thrown 
around  a  hill  instead  of  over  it,  without  increasing  the 
distance  to  be  traveled.  This  may  be  illustrated  by 
cutting  a  well-formed  apple  in  halves.  With  a  tape-line 
find  the  exact  center  on  the  side  and  between  the  ends. 
Then  measure  the  distance  over  the  piece  of  apple  and 
the  distance  around  either  end  to  the  exact  center  of  the 
opposite  side,  and  it  will  often  be  found  about  the  same. 

It  has  been  found  that  when  a  horse  can  pull  a  1,000- 
pound  load  on  a  level  road  he  can  draw  only  900  pounds 
up  a  1  per  cent  grade,  800  pounds  up  a  2  per  cent  grade, 
400  pounds  up  a  5  per  cent  grade,  and  only  250  pounds 
up  a  10  per  cent  grade.  It  might  be  interesting  to  deter- 
mine the  grade  of  some  hills  in  the  school  district.  A 
spirit-level  and  a  tape-line  will  be  needed. 

A  horse  may  pull  only  one-fourth  as  much  on  a  10 
per  cent  grade  as  might  be  pulled  on  a  level  road.   How- 


Public  Highways  287 

ever,  a  horse  may  exert  twice  his  average  pulling  strength 
for  a  few  minutes.  In  the  case  of  a  very  long  hill,  it  might 
in  some  cases  be  better  to  make  a  number  of  steeper 
but  shorter  pulls  than  to  make  one  long  gradual  pull,. 
Thus  we  see  that  grades  greatly  decrease  the  hauling 
capacity,  and,  inasmuch  as  whatever  decreases  the 
hauling  capacity  correspondingly  decreases  earning 
capacity,  the  importance  of  reducing  grades  in  road 
improvement  is  easily  understood. 

407.  Effect  of  Width  of  Tire  on  Draft.  It  is  important 
to  know  the  effect  of  the  width  of  the  tire  on  the  amount 
of  draft  required  to  move  a  load.  The  results  given  in 
the  table  (H  405)  are  fairly  representative.  These  results 
and  many  others  indicate  that  there  is  no  advantage  in 
wide  tires  on  pavements  and  very  hard  roads,  but  for 
ordinary  country  hauling  the  wide  tire  offers  several  ad- 
vantages. Narrow  tires  are  very  destructive  to  road  sur- 
faces, but  wide  tires  roll  and  harden  the  surface  like  a  roller. 

408.  Good  Road  Essentials.  A  road  should  have  a 
smooth,  hard  surface  and  a  reasonably  level  grade,  and 
it  should  have  such  a  foundation  that  it  will  maintain 
its  smooth  surface  in  dry  as  well  as  wet  weather,  that  is, 
its  essential  qualities  should  be  permanent.  In  building 
roads,  therefore,  they  should  be  given  such  form  and  con- 
struction as  will  maintain  these  qualities  under  constant 
use  in  varying  weather  conditions.  Drainage  is  the  all- 
important  problem  encountered  by  the  road  engineer. 
The  road  must  be  so  laid  out  and  constructed  as  to  shed 
water  as  quickly  as  possible,  to  prevent  damage,  to  sur- 
face and  foundation.  (Fig.  181.)  The  surface  of  the  road- 
bed should  be  slightly  elevated  in  the  middle,  so  that 
the  rain-water  will  run  immediately  to  the  side  ditches 
before  it  has  time  to  penetrate  into  the  foundation. 


283 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


Not  only  this,  but  side  drains  should  be  large  enough 
to  carry  off  all  water  without  washing,  and  graded  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  pools  on  the  sides.  The  water- 
table  should  be  kept  well  below  the  surface  of  the  road. 


Fig.  181.  Cross  sections  of  two  good  forms  for  earth  roads.  The  lower  section 
can  be  made  with  a  road  machine,  and  both  sections  can  be  maintained 
with  a  spht-Iog  drag  so  that  water  will  run  off  easily  and  quickly. 


Fig.  182.  Cross  section  of  a  road  showing  the  result  of  improper  construction 
and  drainage.  Note  that  the  center  of  the  road  has  become  the  lowest  part 
and  that  water  may  collect  on  the  surface,  making  the  road  practically 
impassable. 


Fig.  183.   Cross  section  of  road,  showing  clay  cover  on  "deep"  sand  subsoil 


Fig.  184.   Cross  section  of  Macadam  road,  showing  a  compact  foundation  of 
earth  supporting  a  solid  and  durable  stone  sunace. 


Fig.  185.  Transverse  section  of  Telford  road  with  Macadam  surface. 

Suitable  culverts  should  be  provided  to  dispose  of  storm 
water.  These  should  have  sufficient  fall  from  the  upper 
to  the  lower  side  to  wash  out  all  sediment. 

409.  Surfaced  Roads.   Different  kinds  of  material  are 
used  in  surfacing  roads.   In  sections  where  suitable  gravel 


'  Public  Highways  289 

is  found,  some  splendid  roads  are  found  surfaced  with  this 
material.  In  communities  near  the  coast,  shells  have 
been  used  for  road  surfacing  with  good  effect.  But  prob- 
ably the  most  popular  and  generally  employed  material 
is  broken  stone.  Roads  thus  surfaced  are  said  to  be 
macadamized,  being  so  called  for  the  reason  that  John 
Loudon  Macadam,  a  Scotch  engineer,  was  the  first  to 
advocate  and  employ  this  plan  of  road  building.  The 
old  Roman  roads,  which  figure  in  history,  were  surfaced 
with  stone,  in  some  instances  the  stone  surface  being 
several  feet  thick;  but  Macadam  worked  upon  the 
theory  that  a  smaller  amount  of  stone  properly  consoli- 
dated would  serve  the  same  purpose  with  less  expense. 
Time  proved  his  theory  correct,  and  Macadam  is  quoted 
in  almost  every  work  on  road  construction.  Another 
Scottish  engineer  who  advanced  many  splendid  ideas  in 
road  building  and  also  won  fame  as  a  road  builder  during 
the  days  of  Macadam,  was  Thomas  Telford.  The  Telford 
roads  are  built  with  the  lower  layer  of  broad,  flat  stones 
set  on  edge  by  hand.  This  is  considered  by  many  road 
builders  to  be  a  useless  expense  except  when  the  foun- 
dation is  soft.  In  the  Mississippi  delta,  where  the 
roads  are  over  sedimentary  clays,  commonly  known  as 
^'gumbe,"  or  ''buckshot,"  tlie  burnt -clay  method  of 
surfacing  has  been  successful. 

410.  Earth  Roads.  The  building  of  modern  high- 
ways is  being  urged  throughout  the  country  as  their 
importance  becomes  realized,  especially  with  the  increase 
of  overland  traffic  and  the  ever-increasing  demand  for 
better  transportation  facilities  from  the  farm  to  market, 
and  growing  tendencies  toward  better  living  conditions 
in  the  rural  districts.  For  many  years  to  come,  the 
earth  road  mileage  will  probably  be  by  far  greater  than 
that  of  surfaced  road;  hence  the  care  of  earth  roads 


290  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

presents  a  problem  that  should  engage  the  thought 
of  every  one.  Wherever  it  is  not  possible  or  practicable 
to  pave  or  surface  the  roads,  they  should  as  least  be 
properly  graded,  and  so  laid  out  as  to  reduce  grades  to 


Fig.  186.   A  split-log  drag 

the  minimum  and  provide  the  best  possible  drainage, 
A  well-drained  road  will  not  cut  into  deep  ruts,  which 
are  so  annoying  on  neglected  earth  roads. 

411.  The  Split-log  Drag.  The  split-log  drag  is  a 
simple  device  that  can  be  used  effectively  for  the  im- 
mediate betterment  of  earth  roads.  It  has  been  enthu- 
siastically advocated  throughout  the  country  during 
the  past  few  years  and  many  of  them  are  being  effectively 
used.  The  drag  is  usually  made  and  operated  by  progres- 
sive farmers,  who  after  each  rain,  if  the  conditions  of  the 
road  requires  it,  drag  the  road  from  their  own  gate  to  the 
gate  of  the  neighbor,  who  is  expected  to  do  likewise. 
Wherever  this  plan  has  become  well  established,  the  roads 
have  been  greatly  improved.  The  drag  is  most  effective  if 
used  when  the  ground  is  just  beginning  to  dry;  that  is, 
moist  but  not  sticky  or  puddle.  The  drag  is  so  simple  in 
construction  and  operation  that  any  school-boy  can  do 
it  all  with  ease. 


Public  Highways 


291 


The  most  important  part  of  road  dragging  is  using 
the  road  drag  promptly  and  persistently.  Drive  up 
one  side  of  the  road  and  back  on  the  other,  covering 
one  rut  in  each  case.  By  riding  on  the  outer  or  ditch 
end  of  the  drag  the  loose  dirt  picked  up  near  the  ditch 
line  will  be  gently  moved  along  by  the  drag,  filling  ruts 
and  holes  and  leaving  the  surplus  in  the  center  of  the 
road  to  be  travel-packed,  thus  gradually  giving  the  road 
oval  formation. 

The  driver  will  soon  learn  that  by  moving  about  on 
the  drag  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  dirt  can  be  moved, 
and  that  it  can  be  dumped  as  desired.  There  is  a  ridge 
for  every  rut  in  the  road;  the  drag  cuts  down  the  ridges 
and  fills  the  ruts,  thus  preventing  water  from  standing 
in  these  holes  and  soaking  into  the  roadway.  Keep  the 
ditches  clear,  keep  the  roadway  smoothed  down  with 
the  drag  so  that  the  water  may  move  quickly,  and  any 
earth  road  can  be  made  good  for  travel  at  all  seasons. 


Fig.  187.  A  split-log  drag,  properly  used,  means  a  smooth,  serviceable  earth 
road  free  from  ruts,  mud  holes  and  weeds.  Also  a  reduction  of  mud  in 
wet  weather  and  dust  in  dry  weather, — all  at  small  cost.  From  photo 
specially  furnished  by  Office  of  Public  Road  Investigations,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
SELECTION   OF  FARM   CROPS 

412.  Now  that  we  have  learned  something  of  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  plant  growth,  we  may  more  profitably 
study  the  special  requirements  and  uses  of  the  most 
important  field,  orchard  and  garden  crops.  We  have 
learned  something  about  how  plants  grow.  The  Average 
yields  of  staple  crops  in  all  countries  is  much  below  the 
possible  yields.  Often  only  a  fence  separates  a  field 
averaging  only  20  bushels  of  com  to  the  acre  from  one 
averaging  40  bushels.  This  average  yield  of  corn  in  the 
United  States  is  less  than  25  bushels  per  acre,  yet  most 
farmers  recognize  that  it  is  within  their  power  to  make 
their  yields  exceed  this  average. 

413.  The  Four  Essentials.  We  have  learned  that  all 
green  plants  require  four  important  conditions  for  full 
success;  i.e.,  sun  light,  air,  constant  supply  of  water,  and 
certain  mineral  substances  found  in  the  soil.  The  control 
of  the  last  two  constitute  the  foundation  of  cultivation 
and  is  the  first  problem  in  successful  crop  raising.  Culti- 
vation includes  more  than  simply  plowdng  the  soil.  It 
is  making  a  favorable  environment  by  any  means.  The 
difference  between  the  20  and  the  40  bushel  crop  can  be 
accounted  for  largely  by  the  way  these  conditions  are 
controlled. 

414.  The  Second  Most  Important  Problem  of  the 
farmer  is  to  learn  to  select  seed  from  the  better  producing 
plants,  from  which  to  grow  succeeding  crops.  It  is  clear 
that  we  would  profit  by  a  better  seed,  but  it  is  often  a 

(292) 


t.-^ 
«§ 

>.>. 


h 

Ti  03 
I   <M 

3B 


Selection  of  Farm  Crops 


293 


task  for  our  intelligence  to  determine  which,  out  of  a 
dozen  or  more  plants,  will  furnish  seed  that  will  produce 
a  better  crop.  If  a  special  variety  has  better  quality  in 
its  fruit,  fiber,  or  stalk,  or  makes  larger  yields  than  others, 
it  is  usually  because  someone  has  recognized  these  qualities 
and  perpetuated  them  by  constant  selection.     (^  204). 

415.  Selection  of  Crops  to  Suit  Climate  and  Soil. 
It  has  been  found  that  climatic  influences,  such  as  air 
moisture,  soil  moisture,  rainfall,  temperature,  and  winds, 
are  very  important  conditions  determining  what  crops 
are  profitable  or  even  what  varieties  of  a  particular  crop 
are  most  successful  in  certain  sections.  On  going  into  a 
new  section  of  country,  it  will  usually  be  best  to  follow 
the  practice  of  the  older  residents  and  to  experiment 
with  introduced  forms  only  on  a  small  scale,  until  their 
adaptability  can  be  better  determined.  As  a  general 
rule,  those  varieties  are  best  that  have  longest  been 
grown  and  most  carefully 
selected  in  the  climatic 
region  in  which  they  are  to 


Fig.  188.  Select  varieties  suited  to  the  climate  in  which  they  are  to  grow.  On 
left  Dakota  White  Corn  in  North  Dakota;  On  right  Ferguson's  Yellow  Dent 
Corn  in  Oklahoma. 


294    ,         Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

be  used.  (1[  213).  The  varieties  of  cultivated  crops 
brought  to  the  West  from  the  East  by  the  early  pioneers, 
are  seldom  in  use  there  at  present.  They  have  been  re- 
placed by  varieties  that  have  been  developed  in  the  West. 
We  have  here  an  illustration  of  a  general  rule  that  has 
few  exceptions. 

416.  Mixed  Farming.  It  is  rarely  advisable  for  a 
farm  to  grow  just  one  kind  of  crop.  For  example,  a  large 
corn  crop  would  require  more  labor  to  cultivate  at  one 
season  than  one  man  could  supply,  and  later  leave  him 
without  employment.  Farmers,  therefore,  usually  find 
it  more  profitable  to  grow  several  kinds  of  crops.  Other 
reasons  favoring  mixed  farming  were  given  in  chapter  XV. 
Can  you  name  them?     (See  1[  146). 

417.  Mixed  Farming  and  Crop  Failures.  If  a  farm 
producing  only  one  crop  should  be  affected  by  adverse 
weather  conditions,  low  market  values,  etc.,  the  farmer's 
small  returns  for  that  season  might  seriously  impair  his 
working  capital.  If  he  has  several  kinds  of  crops  ma- 
turing at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  it  would  be  unusual 
if  some  of  them  should  not  make  a  fair  return.  Mixed 
farming,  therefore,  tends  to  average  the  hazards  which 
farmers  must  take  against  unforeseen  weather  conditions, 
and  tends  to  give  stability  to  total  annual  revenues. 

418.  The  Size  of  the  Farm  will  depend  much  upon  the 
selection  of  crops  to  be  produced.  In  a  general  way  it  is 
advisable  to  have  the  farm  large  enough  to  justify  a 
reasonable  investment  in  labor  saving  machinery,  draft 
animals,  and  other  conveniences  that  place  a  premium 
upon  intelligence,  rather  than  mere  physical  strength. 
(If  394).  Experience  has  shown  that  farms  growing  gen- 
eral field  crops  and  stock  yield  a  more  profitable  return 
when  large  enough  to  give  employment  to  two  or  more 


Selection  of  Farm  Crops  295 

men.  There  are  many  operations  that  can  be  more 
profitably  performed  by  two  or  more  persons  than  by  one. 
The  actual  area  of  the  farm  will  depend  very  much  upon 
the  requirements  of  the  crops  produced.  For  the  com- 
mon field  crops,  one  man  may  care  for  from  40  to  125 
acres,  with  only  a  moderate  amount  of  extra  labor  at 
certain  seasons.  In  vegetables  or  fruits  a  few  acres  may 
afford  employment  for  a  number  of  men. 

419.  Intensive  and  Extensive  Fanning.  By  intensive 
farming  we  mean  that  extra  efforts  and  outlay  are  made 
to  increase  the  acre  yields.  Special  efforts  are  made  to 
have  the  environment  correspond  closely  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  plants.  Special  preparation  of  the  soil, 
irrigation,  liberal  use  of  fertilizers,  frequent  cultivation 
and  specializing  in  just  a  few  kinds  of  crops  of  high  market 
values,  are  features  of  intensive  farming.  Examples 
are,  onions,  celery,  and  greenhouse  plants.  Crops  where 
quality  more  than  quantity  determine  the  acre-values  are 
usually  more  profitable  when  grown  on  an  intensive  basis. 
Bulky  field  crops  of  comparatively  low  value,  while  giving 
increased  yields,  do  not  usually  make  correspondingly 
profitable  returns  when  grown  on  an  intensive  basis. 
The  pastoral  farming  of  the  pioneers  represented  an 
extreme  type  of  extensive  farming.  The  other  extreme 
is  found  in  the  market  gardens,  greenhouses,  and  orchards 
of  the  present  day  where  a  single  acre  may  be  made  to 
produce  several  hundred,  or  even  several  thousand  dollars' 
worth  of  products. 


CHAPTER  XL 
PASTURE  CROPS 

420.  When  crops  are  harvested  b}^  grazing  animals 
they  are  called  pasture  crops.  If  cut  green  and  fed  in 
this  condition,  soiling  crops  (1[  346)  but  if  allowed  to  dry 
and  cure  they  are  called  hay  crops.  When  harvested 
green,  cut  up  and  stored  in  silos  it  is  called  silage.     (1[  355) . 

421.  The  Value  of  Pasture  Crops  is  generally  under- 
estimated because  they  are  not  converted  directly  into 
money.  (If  258).  In  the  bluegrass  region  cattle  get 
about  half  of  their  living  on  good  pastures  by  grazing 
and  it  takes  from  2  to  8  acres  to  furnish  pasture  feed  for 
a  three-year-old  steer.  Pastures  are  useful  in  ways  which 
cannot  be  easily  measured  in  a  money  equivalent.  Work 
'animals  remain  in  much  better  condition  if  allowed  to 
run  in  pastures.  And  again,  dairy  and  other  cattle  that 
live  out  of  doors  upon  pastures  are  healthier  than  when 
housed  or  closely  penned.  The  best  returns  from  pas- 
tures are  secured  in  the  dairy  sections  of  England,  the 
Jersey  Islands,  Holland,  and  Denmark,  where  more  than 
half  of  the  culti  vat  able  lands  are  in  permanent  pastures. 
There  a  cow  is  kept  on  two  or  three  acres,  one-half  of 
which  is  pasture.  In  some  of  these  countries  a  large  fami- 
ly will  be  prosperous  on  a  60  acre  farm  and  pay  a  rental 
of  seven  or  eight  dollars  per  acre. 

422.  Plants  Suited  to  Pastures.  In  grazing,  the  upper 
parts  of  the  stems  and  leaves  are  removed  or  tramped 
upon  and  disturbed  by  the  animals.  Good  pasture  plants 
have  habits  of  growth  such  that  they  are  not  permanently 

(296) 


Pasture  Crops  297 

damaged  by  a  limited  amount  of  this  kind  of  treatment. 
The  grasses  are  well  suited  to  grazing  because  their  stems 
and  leaves  grow  in  length  largely  from  near  their  bases. 
They  also  have  a  habit  of  stooling  or  suckering,  forming 
many  stems,  especially  so  if  the  older  ones  are  grazed  off. 
They  form  a  turf  out  of  the  upper  layer  of  soil  that  largely 
protects  the  roots  from  the  tread  of  the  grazing  animals. 
Bluegrass,    Bermuda   grass,    mesquit   grass,  and    many 


Fig.  189.     Plowing  Hungarian  Brome  grass  sod  five  years  after  seeding. 
Kansas  Agricultural  College. 

others  on  the  western  ranges  have  perennial  roots,  and 
form  stooling,  suckering  stems,  or  rhizomes,  and  grow 
throughout  the  warm  seasons. 

423.  Valuable  Pasture  Plants  in  any  country  are  few 
in  number.  The  principal  grasses  are  bluegrass  in  the 
North  and  Bermuda  in  the  South.  Besides  these  two, 
awnless  or  Hungarian  brome  grass,  timothy,  redtop,  and 
orchard  grass  are  extensively  used  in  the  North;  and 
redtop,  Johnson,  Guinea,  Rhodes,  rescue  and  Para  grasses 
in  some  sections  of  the  South.     A  good  pasture  grass 


298^  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

should  produce  an  abundance  of  good  seed  and  in  such  a 
way  that  they  may  be  easily  harvested.  Our  best  pasture 
grasses,  however,  do  not  meet  these  requirements,  but 
we  employ  them  because  they  produce  an  abundance  of 
basal  leafage  from  persistent  rootstocks. 

424.  To  Keep  a  Stand  on  pastures  composed  of  annual 
plants  it  is  necessary  to  allow  the  plants  to  seed  naturally, 
or  to  re-seed  the  land  each  year.  For  pastures  composed 
of  perennial  plants  that  multiply  by  the  growth  of  root- 
stocks,  or  rooting  stems,  it  is  necessary  to  allow  sufficient 
growth  to  insure  that  food  be  stored  to  encourage  the 
grow^th  of  these  parts.  Just  the  opposite  procedure  is 
followed  in  trying  to  starve  out  weeds.     (H  62). 

425.  Management  of  Pastures.  The  amount  of  feed 
produced  by  pasture  plants  is  determined  by  the  same 
general  conditions  that  control  the  growth  of  cultivated 
plants.  For  large  returns  they  must  have  a  rich  soil, 
plenty  of  water,  and  develop  large  leaf  surface.  The 
tendency  in  pastures  is  for  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  become 
hard,  due  to  the  trampling  of  stock  and  the  binding  effect 
of  the  roots.  Harrowings  and  top  dressings  with  manures 
are  often  very  beneficial.  We  have  previously  learned 
that  plant  food  is  manufactured  in  the  green  leaves. 
The  amount  of  leaf  surface  exposed  to  sunlight  is  a  measure 
of  the  capacity  of  the  plant  to  manufacture  plant  sub- 
stance.    (See  If  46-48;  also  149  and  152). 

426.  Close  Grazing.  Young  pasture  plants,  or  plants 
grazed  closely  through  the  winter  should  not  be  grazed 
when  just  coming  out  in  the  early  spring.  It  greatly 
retards  the  rapidity  of  their  later  growth.  Pastures  that 
are  grazed  closely  do  not  form  vigorous  plants  and  there- 
fore have  weak  roots  and  soft  turf.  Grass  pastures  hav- 
ing leaves  four  to  six  inches  long  will  have  more  than  treble 


Pasture  Crops  299 

the  producing  power  of  those  with  leaves  only  two  or  three 
inches  long.  It  is  more  profitable  to  feed  animals  than 
to  so  overstock  the  pastures  that  their  growth  is  retarded. 
A  better  practice  is  to  divide  single  large  pastures  into  two 
or  more,  and  graze  one  at  a  time. 


Fig.  190.     Pasture  on  left  grazed  so  closely  that  the  value  of  the  crop  is  greatly 

reduced.     On  right  not  grazed  enough  to  secure  full  advantage  of  the  crop. 

Courtesy  Dr.  David  Griffith,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

427.  Weeds  in  Pastures.  Pasture  lands  are  sometimes 
infested  with  weeds, —  plants  that  stock  will  not  eat. 
Annual  weeds  may  often  be  destroyed  or  reduced  by 
mowing  while  they  are  in  flower,  or  before  their  seeds 
are  ripe.  Perennial  weeds  are  more  difficult  to  eradicate 
and  the  habits  of  each  species  must  be  studied.  A  few 
sheep  and  goats  are  often  desirable  in  pastures  because 
they  prefer  the  leaves  of  weeds  and  bushes  to  the  regular 
pasture  plants,  and  thus  turn  the  objectionable  weeds  into 
a  profit  while  destroying  them.     (T[  306). 


CHAPTER  XLI 
LEGUMES 

BY  PROF.  A.  D.  McNAIR,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

428.  Importance  of  Legumes.  We  have  already 
learned  (If  125)  of  the  association  of  legumes  and  certain 
bacteria,  that  have  the  power  of  converting  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  into  compounds  usable  by 
their  host  plants.  While  the  bacteria  in  the  nodules  on 
the  roots  in  some  way  gather  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air, 
yet  it  is  not  retained  by  them,  but  enriches  the  entire 
host  plant  (1[  124-130).  For  this  reason  they  are  called 
"nitrogen  gatherers."  When  properly  used,  legumes  are 
true  soil  builders. 

429.  Formation  of  Tubercles  and  the  Accumulation 
of  Nitrogen.  All  species  of  legumes  form  tubercles  on 
their  roots,  when  the  proper  bacillus  is  present.  In  soils 
rich  in  soluble  nitrates  the  number  of  tubercles  is  often 
small,  while  in  soils  deficient  in  nitrates,  the  number  is 
usually  greater.  Legumes  that  have  tubercles  on  their 
roots  grow  more  vigorously  and  are  richer  in  nitrogen 
than  those  that  do  not  have  tubercles.  From  this  it  is 
inferred  that  leguminous  plants  acquire  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  air  when  compelled  to  do  so,  but  when  the  soil 
contains  an  abundance  of  nitrates,  they  utilize  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  nitrogen  salts  in  the  soil. 

430.  Soils  and  Fertilizers  for  Legumes.  Alfalfa,  the 
true  clovers,  beans,  peanuts,  and  field  peas  are  benefited 
by  free  lime  and  rarely  thrive  in  acid  soils.  (See  tests  in 
^  141).  Cowpeas  do  not  require  so  much  free  lime,  and 
the  same  is  probably  true  of  soy  beans  and  lespedeza. 

(300) 


Legumes  301 

Phosphorous,  potash,  wood  ashes  and  manure  are  benefi- 
cial to  legumes.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  rarely  ap- 
phed  to  soils  cropped  in  legumes,  though  in  planting  them  it 
is  sometimes  desirable  to  give  a  light  dressing  of  some 
fertilizer  containing  nitrogen  to  give  the  young  plants  a 
good  start. 

431.  Clovers,  Clover  is  a  general  term  applied  to  a 
number  of  legumes.  Red  clover,  and  its  more  vigorous 
variety,  mammoth  clover,  are  largely  grown  in  the  United 
states  north  of  a  line  from  Oregon  to  Alabama.  White 
clover  is  a  hardy,  spreading  perennial  used  largely  in 
pastures  in  regions  north  of  the  Cotton  Belt,  yet  grows  well 
on  lowlands  in  humid  regions  in  the  South.  Owing  to  its 
winter-growing  habit,  it  is  particularly  desirable  in  com- 
bination with  Bermuda  grass  in  the  South,  to  furnish  an 
almost  continuous  pasture.  Crimson  clover  is  a  winter 
annual  not  much  used  for  hay,  but  highly  esteemed  in 
the  South  Atlantic  States  as  a  winter  cover  crop  for  or- 
chards and  a  soil  renovating  crop  in  rotations.  The 
seed  are  sown  in  the  fall  and  the  crop  plowed  under  in 
the  spring  in  time  to  plant  other  crops. 

432.  Alfalfa  or  Lucerne  is  not  truly  a  clover,  but  it 
may  be  said  to  be  the  clover  of  the  West,  and  in  the  mild 
climates  of  all  countries  where  soils  are  suitable.  It  is 
well  suited  to  both  moist  and  dry  climates,  and  responds 
freely  to  irrigation.  It  has  deep  growing  roots  and  with- 
stands dry  weather  as  well,  or  better  than  any  other  forage 
plant.  (Fig.  191).  Alfalfa  needs  a  porous  subsoil,  not 
so  much  because  of  inability  of  the  roots  to  penetrate 
stiff  soils,  but  because  an  excess  of  water  in  the  surface 
soil  is  highly  injurious. 

433.  Alfalfa  is  a  perennial,  forming  a  ''crown,"  with 
many  stems  as  it  grows  older  and  is  mowed  off.     The 


302 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


seed  are  small  and  produce  delicate  seedlings  which  may 
easily  be  destroyed  by  dry  weather,  extreme  cold,  or 
weeds,  though  when  once  established,  the  plants  are  quite 
resistant  to  all.     It  is  never  advisable  to  attempt  seeding 

alfalfa  on  foul  land.  Alfalfa 
seed  retain  their  vitality  for 
years.  The  seed  bed  should 
be  mellow  and  well  settled  be- 
fore the  seed  are  sown.  In 
most  sections,  sowing  seed  in 
late  summer  or  early  fall  is 
preferred  to  spring  seeding.  It 
is  usual  to  plant  about  10  to 
20  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 

434.  Southern  Clovers. 
There  are  two  classes  of  clovers 
common  in  the  humid  regions 
of  the  South.  Lespedeza  or 
Japan  clover  is  a  summer  grow- 
ing species,  and  is  an  import- 
ant hay  crop  in  portions  of 
Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and 
Mississippi,  and  for  pasture 
in  other  sections.  The  Burr 
clovers  are  low  winter  grow- 
ing legumes  originally  from 
southern  Europe,  now  widely 
naturalized  in  the  South  and  in  California.  They  are 
highly  valued  for  grazing  and  as  soil  improving  crops. 

435.  Peanut.  The  peanut  is  a  low-growing  tropical 
annual  requiring  100  to  150  days  of  warm  weather  to 
mature  a  crop.  Sandy  soils  are  preferable  because  the 
nuts  are  not  stained  as  they  are  on  heavy  clay  soils. 


Fig.  191.      Alfalfa  plants  showing 
crown  of  stems  and  deep  feeding 
root. 
Kansas  Agricultural  College. 


Legumes 


303 


The  Virginia  variety  is  usually  shelled  by  hand  before 
planting,  but  the  Spanish  variety  is  often  planted  in  the 
pod.  The  average  yield  is  about  25  bushels  of  nuts  and 
a  ton  of  hay  per  acre.  The  old  notion  that  the  yellow 
flowers  should  be  covered  with  earth  is  a  mistake.  After 
pollination  takes  place  the  showy  yellow  male  flower  fades 
away,  while  the  small 
female  flower  grows 
downward  by  the  ex- 
tension of  the  flower 
stem  until  the  sharp 
pointed  ''pegs"  or 
ovaries  are  thrust  into 
the  ground  where  the 
pod  develops.  It  is 
well  to  keep  the  soil 
quite  mellow  until  the 
pegs  or  ovaries  begin 
to  reach  the  ground. 

436.  Cowpeas,  in 
Europe  are  more  prop- 
erly called  "China  Beans,''  being  in  reality  a  bean  and 
not  a  pea.  They  have  long  been  recognized  as  being 
highly  suitable  for  soil  renovating  crops,  whether  planted 
in  the  spring,  or  as  catch  crops  on  stubble  land,  or 
inter-planted  with  com  or  other  crops.  They  are  grown 
more  largely  in  the  Southern  States,  but  in  recent  years 
their  use  as  a  soil  renovating  crop  in  the  Com  Belt 
States  has  greatly  increased.  The  last  named  section 
depends  largely  on  the  South  to  supply  the  seed  for  their 
plantings. 

437.  Harvesting  Legume  Hay.     Peavine  hay  is  very 
nutritious,  but  requires  some  care  in  order  to  cure  with- 


Fig.  192.  Peanut  Stacks  stacked  for  curing.  One 
bare  vertical  stack  pole  shown  in  foreground. 
Courtesy  of  Prof.  A.  D.  McNair,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


304 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


out  moulding.  It  should  be  put  in  small  shocks  when 
well  wilted,  or  stacked  around  small  vertical  poles,  the 
hay  resting  on  cross  pieces  nailed  to  the  poles  or  be  piled 
on  skeleton  pyramidal  frames,  where  the  air  can  penetrate 
and  dry  it.  Peanuts  are  plowed  out  by  means  of  a  plow 
with  the  mold  board  removed  or  a  potato  digger,  which 


Fig.  193.    Alfalfa  curing  in  shocks  and  in  windrows.    (Ohio) 

lifts  them  out  of  the  ground.  The  plants  are  piled  around 
vertical  poles  with  the  nuts  on  the  inside.  (Fig.  192). 
These  may  stand  some  weeks  and  then  be  stored  loose,  or 
threshed,  and  the  vines  baled.  Lespedeza  hay,  alfalfa 
hay,  and  all  those  hays  which  are  fine,  or  of  medium 
fineness  can  be  handled  with  modern  hay-making  ma- 
chinery. The  coarse  hays  can  seldom  be  handled  in  this 
way  and  therefore  the  labor  and  expense  of  harvesting 
is  greater  than  for  the  fine  hays. 


CHAPTER  XLII 


CULTIVATED   GRAINS 


438.  Wheat,  which  was  probably  the  cereal  first  culti- 
vated by  the  early  civihzation  living  in  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  the  Red  and  the  Mediterranean  Seas,  has  spread 
throughout  the  world.  Rice  and  wheat  were  the  grains  of 
the  early  Eastern  civilization.  Corn  was  the  great  food 
plant  of  the  natives  of  Central  and  North  America.  Thus 
we  see  how  it  has  happened  that  rice,  wheat,  and  com  are 
the  great  grain  crops  of  the  world. 

439.  The  Word  Com  was  originally  applied  to  any 
hard  edible  seed,  grain,  or  kernel.  In  BibHcal  language, 
just  as  to-day  to  an  Enghshman,  ''ears  of  corn"  means 
''heads  of  wheat."  In  Northern  Europe  "a  comfield" 
refers  to  a  field  of  rye,  and  in  Scotland,  to  oats.  In  other 
countries  our  corn  is 

"Maize  or  Indian 
Corn,"  as  it  was  first 
called  by  the  early 
American  explorers. 
In  the  same  way 
"Kaffir  Corn"  and 
"Milo  Maize,"  and 
other  grain  plants 
have  been  named  by 
the  Old  World  to 
distinguish  them 
from  their  staple 
grain. 


Fig.  194.  Com  cut  to  save  stover.  The  shocks 
are  placed  wide  apart  to  faciltate  early  seed- 
ing to  wheat. 

Courtesy  Prof.  Hartley,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


(305) 


306 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


Fig.  195.  Blooming  of  wheat  flower.  A  to  F  opening  and  closing  of  flower;  G, 
pistil,  and  K,  pistil  and  anthers  in  positions  at  stage  shown  in  A;  H pistil  at 
flowering  stage;  /,  shortly  after  flowering;  J,  portion  of  stigma  showing  germi- 
nating pollen  grain ;  L,  a  single  flower  j  ust  after  flowering ;  M,  section  of  same. — 
After  Hays. 

440.  Pollination  in  Grains.  In  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
and  most  other  grasses,  the  stamens  and  pistil  are 
produced  in  the  same  flower.  It  has  been  found,  that  the 
anthers  shed  their  pollen  and  the  stigmas  become  moist 
before  the  flower  opens  and  are  thus  normally  close 
fertilized.  (If  169).  Prof.  Hays  found  that  wheat 
flowers  open  and  close  in  the  early  morning  hours,  the 
operation  consuming  only  20  to  40  minutes.  Study  Fig. 
195.  In  com,  the  tassel  produces  the  pollen  bearing  flow- 
ers. The  silks  usually  appear  before  the  pollen  is  shed 
from  the  tassel  above.  As  a  result  com  is  normally  cross 
fertihzed  by  pollen  blown  from  nearby  stalks.  (See 
IF  173). 

441.  In  Germination  and  in  the  formation  of  the  roots, 
cereals  show  a  peculiarity  that  is  important  to  know  when 
their  seeds  are  to  be  planted.  The  first  stages  of  germina- 
tion are  as  shown  in  Figs.  9  and  10.  The  shoot  end  grows 
up  and  forms  a  second  whorl  of  coronal  roots  that  are 
permanent,  the  seedling  roots  eventually  dying.  (Fig. 
196) .    The  length  of  the  first  internode  varies,  according  to 


Cultivated  Grains 


307 


the  depth  of  covering,  if  the  seeds  are  covered  deeply, 
it  will  grow  to  within  about  one  or  two  inches  of  the  sur- 
face before  forming  the  permanent  roots.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  deep  covering  of  grains  does  not  make  the  plants 
deep  rooted,  and  only  seems  to  reduce  their  chances  of 
success  (T[  32).  The  root  system  of  cereals  is  composed 
altogether  of  slender,  much  branched  roots.  There  are 
no  heavy  tap  roots  as  in  alfalfa.     (See  Figs.  32  and  203). 

442.  The  Best  Varieties  of  Cereals  are  strains  that 
have  been  continuously  and  carefully  selected  and  thus 
acclimated  in  the  climatic  belt  in  which  they  are  to  be 
grown.  High  yielding  varieties  of  corn  and  wheat  from 
moist  climates  usually  give  lower  yields  in  dry  climates 
than  acclimated  native  sorts;  com  and  other  grains  from 
dry  climates,  however,  will  sometimes  out-yield  native 
strains  in  moist  cli- 
mates, if  the  change 
is  not  too  radical.  In 
many  sections  of  the 
South,  seed  corn  is 
purchased  from  the 
North,  with  the  idea 
that  it  will  give  earlier 
maturity  and  therefore 
larger  yields.  It  does 
give  earlier  maturity, 
but  it  has  long  been 
established  that  im- 
proved native  varieties 
give   more  bushels  of 

nrvr^         /'Q/^^  T?i«.     1  QQ  \  ^^8-  l^^.     Diagram  of  germinating  corn  when 

com.       voce  I'lg.  iOS.;  planted  at  different  depths.     1,  when  planted  1 

44^      TmnrnvPTTiPnt  1°?^  ^^^^i  ^'  planted  3  inches  deep;  3,  planted 

■xrx%j.     xiiipiuvciiiciii  5  mches  deep;  c,  seedling  roots;  a,  permanent 

ftf    Vari<a+ioo         "\rQQT.lTr  roots;  and  b,  first  internode  the  length  of  which 

UX     V  d.1  IC  UCb.       1>  edl  ly  is  determined  by  depth  of  covering  of  seed. 


308 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


all  the  valuable  varieties  that  have  been  introduced,  have 
resulted  from  the  careful  multiplication  of  seed  from 
selected  plants.     The  average  grain  grower  may  not  care 

to  take  the  time 
to  make  the  head 
row  tests  to  im- 
prove his  seed,  but 
it  would  be  more 
profitable  to  do  so 
than  to  continual- 
ly plant  common, 
mixed,  field  run 
seed,  as  is  com- 
monly practiced. 
When  the  seed 
from  selected 
heads  of  the  same 
variety  of  grain 
are  planted  in  ad- 
jacent drills,  we 
have  a  chance  to 
compare  the  dif- 
erences  in  their 
progeny.  The 
seed  from  the  best 
yielding  head  rows 
are  used  to  plant 
increase  blocks  and  so  on  until  enough  seed  is  secured  to 
plant  a  large  field.     (See  Figs.  197  and  198). 

444.  Preparing  Land  for  ©mall  Grain.  As  a  general 
rule,  breaking  land  intended  for  small  grain  well  in  ad- 
vance of  seeding,  will  give  considerably  larger  yields  than 
late  breaking.     Breaking  to  a  depth  of  less  than  4  to  5 


Fig.  197.  Head  rows  of  wheat  showing  differences 
that  may  be  noted  when  seed  from  different  stools 
are  planted  in  adjacent  rows. 

Kansas  Agricultural  College. 


Cultivated  Grains  309 

inches  or  greater  than  8  to  10  inches  is  not  often  desirable. 
The  advantages  that  follow  early  breaking  are  due  to  the  in- 
creased amount  of  moisture  stored  and  the  encouragement 
given  to  the  formation  of  nitrates  in  the  soil.     (H  128). 

445.  Early   and    Late    Plowing.     Many   experiments 
have  been  made  that  show  how  great  the  gain  is  when 


Fig.  198.  Increase  blocks  of  wheat  and  oats  planted  from  seed  grown  in  head  rows. 
Increase  blocks  planted  in  this  way  afford  another  opportunity  for  comparing 
quality  and  yield. 

Courtesy  Prof.  Frank  Spragg,  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 

early  breaking  is  compared  with  late  breaking.  At  the 
Oklahoma  Experiment  Station,  three  plots  were  plowed 
on  dates  indicated  in  the  table  in  H  446.  In  the  early  plow- 
ing, the  soil  was  moist  and  readily  formed  a  mellow  bed 
that  absorbed  and  largely  retained  the  summer  rains. 
The  medium  late  breaking  broke  up  lumpy  and  was  drier, 
while  the  very  late  breaking  was  so  weedy,  and  broke  up 
so  lumpy  that  it  required  about  eight  times  as  much  labor 
to  get  the  land  in  reasonably  fair  condition  for  seeding. 


310 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


Fig.  199.    Wheat  growing  on  plot  No.  1,  which  has  been  merely  double  disced  and 
continuously  seeded  to  the  same  crop.    Compare  with  Figs.  200  and  201. 

446.  All  were  planted  on  September  15th.  On  the 
early  plowed  plot,  germination  was  prompt  and  regular, 
and  the  plants  went  into  the  winter  with  a  good  start, 
and  as  a  result  grew  off  earlier  in  the  spring  and  matured 
their  crop  earlier.  On  the  late  plowed  plots,  germination 
was  slow  and  irregular,  due  to  lack  of  moisture  and  the 
unsettled  condition  of  the  soil.  The  following  yields  were 
obtained  : 

Date  of  Plowing.  Yield  per  acre. 

Early  preparation July  19th  31.3  bushel 

Medium Aug.  15th  28 . 5  bushel 

Late Sept.  11th  15.3  bushel 


447.  The  early  breaking  was  worth  about  25c  a  day 
per  acre  over  the  late  plowing.  Results  obtained  at  the 
Kansas  Experiment  Station  indicated  similairly  a  gain 
of  about  40c  per  day  in  favor  of  early  deep  plowing,  when 
compared  with  late,  shallow  plowing.    Results  are  usual- 


Cultivated  Grains 


311 


Fiy.  L'OO.  W'liunt  growiuy  on  plot  No.  <j,  which  had  had  a  heavy  crop  of  rye 
plowed  under,  and  deeply  plowed  and  summer  fallowed  after  each  harvest. 
Compare  with  Fig.  199,  and  results  noted  in  table  in  11449. 

ly,  but  not  always,  so  decidedly  in  favor  of  early  prepara- 
tion. Indeed,  sometimes  there  is  no  gain  whatever,  but 
seldom  if  ever,  any  decreased  yields  result  from  early 
deep  plowing. 

448.  Listing  in  Arid  Sections  is  sometimes  preferred 
to  flat  breaking,  especially  if  the  fields  are  level  and  do 
not  wash.  Prof.  TenEyck  reports  the  following  results 
with  wheat  at  the  Ft.  Hays  Kansas  Experiment  Station: 

• 
Yield  of  Wheat  on  Flat  Broke,  Listed,  and  Fallowed  Land 


Soil  Preparation 


Late  fall  plowed 

Early  fall  plowed 

Early  fall  listed 

Summer  fallowed  (2  plots  alternated) 
Summer  fallowed,  each  plot 


Yield  per  Acre  in  Bushels 


12. 
16.7 

20.9 
23.6 

11.8 


312  '         Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


449.  Green  Manuring.  (See  If  131).  Prof.  Shaw  of 
the  CaUfornia  Experiment  Station,  reports  the  following 
results  which  show  the  possibiHties  of  deep  plowmg,  and 

a  single  green  manur- 
ing on  sandy  soils 
naturally  lacking  in 
the  qualities  that 
humus  gives.  First 
a  number  of  plots  were 
summer  fallowed,  and 
in  the  fall  plowed  to 
a  depth  of  6  inches, 
harrowed  and  seeded 
as  indicated  in  the 
table,  except  No.  1, 
which  was  sown  to 
wheat  continuously 
and  only  double  disced 
after  each  harvest. 
The  other  plots  were 
deeply  plowed  after 
each  harvest  and  sum- 
mer fallowed.  Com- 
pare Figs.  199,  200 
and  201.     Also  1[  143. 


Fig.  201.  Wheat  plants  from  six  plots  treated 
differently,  showing  comparative  develop- 
ment: 1,  plot  continuously  seeded  to  wheat; 
2,  bare  fallowed;  3,  horse  beans  grown  and 
plowed  under  after  previous  crop;  4,  Can- 
adian field  peas  grown  and  plowed  under;  5, 
rye  and  vetch  grown  and  plowed  under;  6, 
rye  grown  and  plowed  under. 


Yield  of  Wheat  Under  Different  Soil  Treatments 


Crop  Grown  and  Treatment  Given  in 

Yield  per  Acre 

First  Year 

2d  Year 

3d  Year 

Average 
2  Years 

1 .  Wheat  after  wheat  double  disced . .  26  bu. 

2.  Bare  fallow 

15.7 

28. 

35.3 

33.7 

50.7 

51.3 

38.6 
40.0 

39.3 
57.3 
53.3 

33.3 

3.  Horse  beans,  (turned  under) light 

4.  Canadian  field  peas  (turned  under),  .light 

5.  Rye  and  Vetch  (turned  under) heavy 

6.  Rye  (turned  under) heavy 

37.6 
36.5 
54. 
52.3 

Cultivated  Grains  313 

450.  In  the  results,  the  increased  yield  was  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter  turned  under. 
The  advantages  of  deep  plowing  and  green  manuring 
were  noticeable.  Similar  tests  made  on  heavier  land, 
richer  in  humus,  did  not  show  such  decided  increase. 

451.  The  Fungus  Diseases  of  Cereals  of  most  import- 
ance are  the  rusts  and  smuts.  The  rusts,  (Fig.  88)  do 
greater  damage,  and  unfortunately  no  satisfactory  means 
of  control  are  known.  The  selection  of  varieties  show- 
ing reasonable  resistance  is  the  best  safeguard  against 
loss  from  rust.  Every  class  in  Agriculture  should  make 
the  treatments  to  prevent  smut  in  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
and  sorghums.  (See  H  222).  There  are  a  number  of 
different  species  of  grain  smuts.  There  are  several  species 
peculiar  to  wheat,  and  likewise  other  grain  crops.  Some 
kinds  may  be  prevented  by  treating  the  seed  grain  with 
a  dilute  solution  of  formalin,  while  with  others  the  treat- 
ment with  hot  water  will  be  effective.  The  cost  of 
treating  seed  grains  is  small. 

451a.  Loss  from  Grain  Smuts.  Visit  grain  fields  just  before 
harvest.  Mark  a  square  yard  and  count  the  stools,  noting  the 
number  smutted.  Calculate  the  per  cent  of  loss.  How  much  could 
a  farmer  afford  to  pay  for  seed  wheat  or  seed  oats  reasonably  free 
from  smut? 

451b.  How  many  acres  in  the  school  district  are  planted  to 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  and  sorghum?  What  was  the  highest,  the 
lowest,  and  the  average  yield  for  each  grain?  What  was  the 
average  loss  caused  by  smuts  for  each  crop?  What  would  this 
amount  to  for  the  school  district?  How  does  this  sum  compare 
with  the  cost  of  the  school  house? 


CHAPTER  XLIII 
WHEAT,   OATS,  RICE,  BARLEY  AND   RYE 

452.  Wheat  is  most  largely  grown  in  cool,  temperate 
climates,  though  it  is  grown  to  considerable  extent  in  the 
tropical  sections  of  all  continents.  Its  wdnter  growing 
habit  and  early  spring  maturing,  make  it  especially  well 
suited  to  the  higher  and  drier  sections  of  the  Middle  West- 
ern States.  While  the  varieties  adapted  to  fall  seeding 
are  grown  almost  exclusively  in  the  warmer  wheat  sections, 
there  are  many  varieties  adapted  to  spring  seeding  grown 
in  the  colder  climates. 

453.  The  Wheat  Genus  includes  eight  types:  The 
(1)  einkorn,  (2)  spelt,  (3)  emmer,  (4)  poulard,  and  (5) 
Polish  wheats  are  forms  that  are  very  hardy  and  drouth- 
resistant,  and  are  grown  to  some  extent  to-day  in  dry 
sections,  but  more  for  feed  for  live  stock  than  for  human 
food.  These  grains  produce  a  very  inferior  flour.  They 
were  largely  cultivated  in  ancient  times  throughout 
Egypt,  Greece,  and  the  Roman  Empire. 

454.  The  (6)  Common  Wheat  includes  the  varieties 
largely  cultivated  throughout  the  world  as  bread  wheats. 
Their  larger  use  is  due  not  only  to  their  greater  yielding 
power,  but  because  of  the  superior  quality  of  their  flour 
for  making  leavened  bread.  This  quality  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  gluten,  which  causes  the  flour  to  form  a  dough 
when  mixed  with  water.  This  on  leavening  and  baking 
forms  a  porous  bread.  Leavening  is  produced  by  the 
formation  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  dough,  either  by 
yeast  or  from  baking  powder.     The   (7)   Club  Wheat 

(314) 


Wheat,  Oats,  Rice,  Barley  and  Rye  315 

varieties  are  readily  distinguished  by  their  short,  compact, 
club  shaped  heads.  Their  miUing  qualities  are  similar 
to  common  wheat. 

455.  (8)  Durum  Wheat  varieties  have  noticeably 
broad,  smooth  leaves.  The  heads  are  large  and  often 
so  heavily  bearded  that  they  resemble  barley.  The 
grains  are  large  and  very  hard  and  have  more  gluten  and 
less  starch  than  common  wheat.  Durum  wheat  is 
sometimes  called  ''macaroni  wheat"  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  particularly  well  suited  and  largely  used  for  making 
macaroni  and  other  paste  products.  The  best  durum 
wheat  flour  makes  an  excellent  quality  of  bread,  though 
not  naturally  so  white  as  bread  from  common  wheat. 

456.  The  Hardness  and  Texture  of  the  grain  vary 
not  only  in  the  different  varieties,  but  with  the  climate  and 
season  in  which  the  wheat  is  grown.  Hard  wheat  varie- 
ties which  characterize  dry  regions,  become  soft  when 
grown  in  moist  climates,  and  vice  versa.  This  explains 
why  the  fall  sown  wheats  grown  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  are  largely  soft  wheats,  and  the  wheat  from  the 
drier  sections  of  the  West,  largely  hard  wheats.  Hard 
wheat  grains  show  a  dark,  homey  appearance  on-  the 
exposed  surface  when  cut  across,  while  the  cross  sections 
of  soft  wheat  are  white  and  starchy.  Varying  with  the 
kind,  quality,  and  grade  of  wheat  and  the  miUing  processes, 
the  out  turn  of  mill  products  are  about  as  follows :  Flour 
usually  70  to  75  per  cent  ranging  from  65  to  80  per  cent. 
The  flour  is  usually  run  in  two  or  more  grades;  bran  15  to 
20  per  cent;  shorts  and  middlings,  5  to  8  per  cent. 

457.  Oats  grow  rapidly,  a  habit  made  possible  by  their 
large  development  of  leaves.  Prof.  King  reports  that 
oats  require  more  water  to  make  a  pound  of  dry  matter 
than  wheat  or  corn,  his  experiment  indicating  504  pounds 


316.  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

of  water  for  oats,  464  pounds  for  barley,  and  277  pounds 
for  corn.  (1[  106).  In  the  dry  warm  climates,  red  oats 
are  more  successful  than  the  white  oats,  and  probably 
require  less  water.  In  sections  far  enough  south  to  allow 
fall  seeding  oats  are  valuable,  not  only  as  a  grain  crop, 
but  as  a  winter  grazing  crop;  in  fact  they  are  often  grown 
for  this  purpose  alone. 

458.  Preparing  Laiid  for  Oats.  Oat  yields  are  affected 
more  by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  rain-fall  during 
their  growing  season,  than  by  the  manner  in  which  the 
soil  is  prepared  for  seeding.  They  give  their  best  returns 
on  heavy  stiff  lands.  Fertilizers  like  potash  and  phos- 
phates, that  tend  to  increase  the  grain  rather  than  the 
stalk  are  preferred.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers  increase  the 
natural  tendency  to  make  a  large  growth  of  stems  and 
leaves,  often  causing  the  stems  to  lodge. 

458a.  Classes  and  Varieties  of  Oats.  The  cultivated  oats  belong 
to  three  groups  as  follows:  A.  Common  or  Branched  Oats  which 
include  most  of  the  cultivated  varieties,  commonly  classed  as  white 
oats  in  the  grain  trade.  Some  varieties  have  dark  or  even  black 
grains.  The  panicles  or  heads  are  open  and  spreading.  B.  Tartar- 
ian or  Side  Oats  have  erect,  close  panicles,  the  spikelets  being  on  short 
branches  that  hang  to  one  side  of  the  head.  This  form  includes 
but  few  varieties  that  are  generally  cultivated.  C.  The  Red  or 
Southern  Oats,  originally  from  Southern  Europe,  are  often  called 
"rust-proof  oats"  because  of  their  comparative  resistance  to  rust. 
They  are  generally  used  in  the  South,  where  the  more  vigorous 
growing  white  oats  do  not  thrive.  Red  oat  varieties  are  growing 
in  favor  with  northern  farmers,  due  to  their  early  maturing  habits. 
Their  low-growing,  stout  stems,  comparative  resistance  to  rust, 
ability  to  stand  up  well  and  avoid  lodging,  drouth  resisting  qualities, 
and  large  grains  make  them  especially  popular  in  the  South. 

459.  Rice  is  said  to  be  the  principal  cereal  in  the  diet 
of  nearly  800  million  people,  which  is  more  than  half  of 
the  world 's  population.     It  makes  a  healthful,  economical, 


Wheat,  Oats,  Rice,  Barley  and  Rye  317 

appetizing  food  and  its  use  in  American  homes  is  rapidly 
increasing,  especially  as  a  base  in  preparing  side  dishes. 
It  was  the  most  important  grain  in  China  3,000  B.C., 
but  was  not  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians.  It  was 
introduced  into  Italy  in  the  Fifteenth  century  and  into 
the  Virginia  Colony  in  1647,  and  was  first  grown  in  the 
United  States  in  a  garden  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  in  1694. 

460.  Most  of  the  American  rice  is  grown  in  South 
Carolina,  and  in  the  Gulf  prairie  regions  of  Texas  and 
Louisiana.  It  is  successfully  grown  in  inland  locations 
in  South  Carolina,  California,  Arkansas,  and  as  far  north 
as  Southern  Illinois.  Rice  is  usually  and  most  successful- 
ly cultivated  under  irrigation.  Water  is  necessary  not 
only  for  the  best  development  of  the  crop,  but  to  keep 
down  weeds.  In  oriental  countries  rice  is  germinated  in 
beds,  and  the  seedlings  transplanted  by  hand,  but  in 
America  the  ground  is  prepared,  seeded,  and  harvested 
by  the  same  machinery  used  in  handling  other  cereals. 
The  fields  are  usually  kept  covered  with  water  from  the 
time  plants  are  a  few  inches  high  until  near  the  harvest 
period. 

461.  Barley  and  Rye  are  largely  grown  in  Europe  and 
in  a  few  sections  of  the  United  States.  While  barley  is 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer,  hardy  varieties 
are  often  grown  for  winter  pasture,  and  to  produce  grain 
for  feeding.  In  some  sections,  barley  is  mown  when  ''in 
the  boot"  for  hay.  Rye  has  similar  uses.  Because  of 
their  hardiness  and  vigor,  they  are  both  much  grown  to 
furnish  winter  pasture  and  cover  crops,  the  production  of 
grain  being  a  secondary  consideration. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
CORN 

462.  The  Com  Plant  is  an  interesting  one  because  it 
is  the  most  important  American  crop.  It  is  valued  not 
only  as  a  producer  of  grain,  but  forage  also.  From  the 
grain  we  get  meal,  various  forms  of  breakfast  foods, 
starch,  glucose  made  from  starch  and  so  largely  used  in 
candies  and  sirups,  corn  oil  largely  used  in  making  rubber 
tires  for  vehicles,  and  many  other  useful  products.  It 
is  an  annual  plant  that  has  a  reasonably  fixed  period  of 
growth  from  germination  to  maturity,  and  dies  before  the 
growing  season  ends.  Some  of  the  tall  growing  forms 
found  in  tropical  America  require  over  200  days  to  mature 
their  crop.     (See  Fig.  188). 

462a.  Species  and  Varieties.  Corn  includes  the  following 
species,  distinguished  largely  by  the  amount  of  horny  endosperm, 
in  the  fruit  or  grain  (^  18). 

a.  Pod  Corn  has  the  grains  as  well  as  the  ears  covered  by  shucks. 
This  is  supposed  to  be  the  primitive  form  from  which  the  cultivated 
varieties  have  been  developed. 

b.  Pop  Corn  is  recognized  by  the  smallness  of  the  grains,  and 
the  hard  horny  endosperm  extending  to  the  top  of  the  grain.  When 
suddenly  heated  to  high  temperatures,  the  endosperm  everts,  with 
a  "pop,"  forming  the  familiar  soft,  starchy  mass. 

c.  Flint  Corn  has  a  glossy  capped  grain,  due  to  the  horny  endo- 
sperm extending  to  the  top  of  the  grain.  Many  varieties  of  this 
class  mature  in  90  to  120  days  or  less.  Because  of  this  early  matur- 
ing habit  they  are  largely  used  as  the  staple  field  corn  of  the  New 
England  States,  and  in  many  sections  of  Canada.  They  do  not 
yield  so  well  as  dent  varieties  and  are  being  replaced  by  the  develop- 
ment of  early  maturing  dent  varieties. 

d.  Dent  Corn  is  the  type  cultivated  almost  exclusively  in  the 

(318) 


CHAPTER  XLVI 

COTTON 

491.  The  most  important  product  of  the  cotton  plant 
is  the  fiber.  Wool  and  silk  are  the  animal  fibers  used  in 
spinning  threads  for  soft  fabrics.  Cotton,  flax,  hemp,  and 
jute  are  vegetable  fibers  used  in  textile  manufactures. 
The  coarser  fibers,  largely  used  in  cordage  and  bag 
manufacture,  are  hemp,  jute,  sisal,  and  some  thirty  others 
of  minor  importance.  It  should  be  noted  that  cotton  is 
the  most  important  fiber  in  the  world,  and  that  it  is  most 
largely  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  manufacture  of 
cotton  alone  gives  employment  to  more  people  than  any 
other  single  industry. 


m      ^1  'WBillJi  III  ill  ll  r  -  ■'-       •'*^ ' 

,v,-.', .  *■■;?,•-"■  ■  ■'''•■'  .■ 

'IH^ 

''■^i-  -m' 

:,;^M;.-'*i /:■■•' 

m^^jr% 

1 

1^     7                 "''             '' 

_  '^••>v.  m 

.J*.^-*y'tr 

*.^"  ,  *v:.^        "- 

^\?^ 

.                                  ^'s^              *■ 

Fig.  211.    A  cotton  field  on  prairie  land  showing  uniform,  fruitful,  stalks  and  burrs 
with  storm-proof  qualities.    Grown  from  pedigreed  seed, 

(335) 


336  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

492.  History  of  the  Cotton  Industry.  Cotton  has  not 
always  been  the  important  plant  that  it  now  is.  It  was 
first  kno^vn  to  our  civilization  in  Southwestern  Asia  and 
China,  and  is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  to  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  during 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  (356-323  B.C.).  Species 
of  cotton,  different  from  old  world  forms,  were  found 
growing  wild,  and  sometimes  in  cultivation  in  Mexico,  and 
the  West  Indies,  and  various  parts  of  South  America  when 
these  countries  were  first  visited  by  Europeans.  How- 
ever, owing  to  the  great  expense  of  removing  the  lint 
from  the  seed  by  hand,  wool,  flax,  and  silk  continued  to 
be  the  most  important  fibers  until  near  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century. 

493.  The  invention  of  the  spinning  frame  in  1769,  by 
Richard  Arkwright  and  the  cotton  gin  in  1794  by  Eli  Whit- 
ney, made  it  possible  for  cotton  to  be  the  basis  of  large 
manufacturing  industries,  not  only  in  America,  but  also 
in  Europe.  It  soon  became,  and  has  remained  our  largest 
export  production,  and  to-day  brings  more  money  to  the 
United  States  than  any  other  class  of  exports. 

494.  The  Growing  and  Fruiting  Habits  of  cotton  are 
different  from  the  grains.  The  latter  are  annuals  and 
have  a  reasonably  fixed  growing  period  in  which  the 
maturity  of  the  fruit  is  the  beginning  of  their  death. 
Cotton  grows  and  fruits  as  long  as  conditions  continue 
favorable.  The  stalk  has  a  stout  central  stem,  usually 
from  1  to  5  feet  tall,  varying  with  the  soil,  rainfall,  and 
variety  of  cotton.  The  branches  are  of  two  kinds;  (a) 
fruiting  branches  which  form  a  bloom  in  the  axil  of  every 
leaf,  and  (b)  vegetative  branches  which,  like  the  stem, 
do  not  bear  flowers,  but  only  leaves  and  fruiting  branches. 
(See  Figs.  212  and  213). 


Cotton  337 

495.  Characters  Considered  in  Selecting  Seed.  As 
a  flower  is  produced  at  every  node  on  fruiting  branches, 
it  is  plain  that  branches  with  short  internodes  will  form 
flowers  more  rapidly  than  branches  with  long  internodes, 
and  short  jointedness  is  therefore  an  indication  of  a 
tendency  to  rapid  fruiting.  In  some  plants  the  first 
fruiting  branches  are  formed  early  and  close  to  the  ground, 
but  in  others  later  and  higher  up  on  the  stem.  We  can 
thus  see  that  the  latter  type  of  stalk  would  be  late  in 
beginning  to  form  fruits,  and  the  former  early.  Again, 
in  some  varieties  we  find  that  the  fruiting  branches  are 
short,  and  cease  to  lengthen  after  forming  just  a  few 
nodes.  Such  branches  are  said  to  have  a  determinate 
growth.  In  others  the  branches  continue  to  grow  and 
flower  thruout  the  season,  and  are  described  as  continuous 
growing  or  fruiting  branches.  As  the  fruiting  period  is 
limited  by  the  length  of  the  growing  season,  it  is  desirable 
to  select  seed  from  plants  that  begin  to  fruit  early,  fruit 
rapidly  and  continuously.  Such  plants  produce  larger 
crops  than  stalks  with  opposite  characters.  The  method 
of  selecting  high  yielding  strains  is  similar  to  the  plan  of 
improving  corn  by  the  ear-to-row  test. 

496.  The  Size  of  the  Bolls,  and  the  character  of  the 
opened  burrs  are  closely  associated  with  the  earhness  of 
maturity,  difficulty  of  picking,  and  resistance  to  weather 
damage  or  ''storm  proof"  quaUty.  Burrs  of  large  bolls 
are  more  storm  proof  than  those  of  small  bolls,  and  they 
are  a  great  advantage  in  picking,  for  it  is  easier  to  pick  a 
pound  of  cotton  when  the  bolls  average  40  to  60  to  the 
pound,  than  in  cotton  where  120  to  150  are  required. 
Each  boll  has  usually  4  to  5  cells  in  which  the  locks  or 
lint  bearing  seeds  are  produced. 

497.  Species  and  Varieties.    There  are  a  number  of 


338 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


well  marked  types  of  cotton  in  cultivation.  The  cottons 
cultivated  in  Egypt,  India,  China,  and  Central  and  South 
America  are  all  noticeably  different  from  the  American 
upland  cotton.  The  upland  varieties  are  adapted  to  a 
wide  range  of  conditions,  producing  a  fiber  %  to  Ij^ 


1^ 

•^ 

^ 

hIk4l  '^ 

^. 

J 

'i'' 

Fig.  212.    Cotton  stalk  with  vigorous  vegetative  branches  and  short  deteruiiuate 
fruiting  branches.    Type  of  late  slow  fruiting  stalks. 


inches  long.  The  long  staple  varieties  having  fibers  IJ^ 
to  13/2  inches  long  are  successful  only  on  rich  soil  in  humid 
regions.  Sea  Island  Cotton,  which  is  readily  distinguished 
by  its  yellow  blossoms,  came  originally  from  the  West 
Indies.  It  has  silky  fibers  IJ^  to  2  inches  long  and  is 
successfully  cultivated  in  just  a  few  locahties  near  the 
coast  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida.     Besi*ies 


Cotton 


339 


the  American  types  a  form  of  Egyptian  cotton  is  grown 
to  a  limited  extent  in  California  and  Arizona. 

498.  Cultivation.     Bearing   in    mind   the    continuous 
growing  habit  of  the  cotton  plant,  and  the  relation  of  this 


CottMU  Stalk  with  vigorous  fruiting  branches  and  one  slow  growing 
vegetative  branch.  Type  of  early,  rapid  continuous  fruiting  stalk.  Note  that 
the  first  fruiting  branches  are  low  and  continuous  fruiting. 


to  fruiting,  it  is  plain  that  the  first  consideration  should 
be  to  provide  the  conditions  that  make  growth  continuous 
and  normal  throughout  the  growing  season.  Aside  from  the 
natural  richness  of  the  soil,  the  regularity  of  the  supply 
of  moisture  is  most  important.  {\\  105).  While  cotton 
is  classed  as  a  drouth  resisting  crop,  it  is  well  to  remember 


340  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

that  a  liberal  amount  of  moisture  is  essential  for  con- 
tinuous fruiting  and  therefore  for  large  yields. 

499.  The  Light  Relation  of  the  fruiting  branches  is 
probably  the  second  most  important  feature  to  be  con- 
sidered in  caring  for  a  cotton  crop.  Cotton  plants  do 
best  in  warm,  sunshiny  weather.  The  normal  healthy 
growth  of  the  fruiting  branches  is  especially  important. 
Plants  should  never  be  so  thick  that  the  leaves  on  these 
branches  shade  each  other  very  much.  On  upland  or 
poor  land  where  cotton  stalks  grow  only  18  to  24  inches 
high,  the  plants  may  be  quite  close  together,  10  to  18 
inches  in  the  drill,  and  not  injuriously  shade  each  other. 
On  heavy  bottom  or  other  lands,  greater  space  between 
plants  should  be  given  in  order  to  allow  the  light  to  reach 
the  lower  fruiting  branches.  It  may  be  noted  that  the 
rule  for  spacing  cotton  according  to  the  richness  of  the 
land  is  the  opposite  of  that  for  corn.     Why?     ( %  149-466) . 

500.  Shedding  of  Blossoms.  Cotton  yields  are  often 
reduced  by  the  falling  off  of  many  blooms  and  young 
bolls,  leaving  the  branches  unfruitful.  This  is  not  well 
understood,  but  it  is  probably  influenced  by  irregularity 
in  the  moisture  supply  due  to  dry  weather,  hot  winds,  or 
showers.  Shedding  may  be  serious  either  when  growth 
is  very  rapid  or  very  slow.  Sometimes  shedding  is 
attributed  to  improper  fertilization  of  the  flower  by  the 
pollen,  sometimes  to  poor  nourishing  of  the  blooms,  either 
from  rapid  growth  or  dry  weather.  (See  If  158-160). 
The  time  consumed  from  the  beginning  of  the  bud  to  the 
opening  of  the  flowers  is  usually  about  3  to  4  weeks.  (See 
Fig.  85).  The  time  from  the  opening  of  the  flower  to 
the  maturity  and  opening  of  the  boll  is  30  to  50  days. 
When  the  flowers  open,  usually  about  sunrise,  they  are 
creamy  white  in  upland  cotton  and  yellow  in  Sea  Island 


Cotton  341 

cotton.  They  turn  pink,  through  the  day  and  close  towards 
nightfall.  The  flowers  are  normally  self  fertilized,  though 
considerable  cross  fertilization  is  brought  about  by  the 
visits  of  insects,  humming  birds,  etc. 

501.  Preparing  Land  for  Cotton.  Cotton  farmers  are 
not  agreed  as  to  the  comparative  advantages  of  flat 
breaking,  listing,  or  double  listing  in  preparing  land  for 
a  cotton  crop.  Deep  fall  breaking  of  cotton  land  is  very 
desirable,  but  is  often  prevented  by  delays  in  picking  the 
previous  crop.  This  condition  can  be  partially  avoided 
by  rotating  cotton  with  small  grains,  cow  peas,  peanuts, 
or  corn,  but  unfortunately  much  land  is  planted  to  cotton 
from  year  to  year. 

502.  Seedage.  Seed  are  often  planted  on  "the  level" 
on  harrowed  land.  In  very  dry  windy  sections,  the  seed 
^re  put  in  slight  lists,  while  in  moist  sections  subject  to 
excessive  rains,  the  seed  is  planted  on  slightly  raised  beds. 
Formerly  it  was  the  practice  to  sow  cotton  'seed  by  hand 
in  drills,  using  2  to  3  bushels  per  acre.  Now,  owing  to  the 
regularity  of  dropping  and  covering  by  machine  planters, 
only  a  fourth  to  a  half  bushel  of  seed  is  used  to  plant 
an  acre.  This  thinner  seeding  is  not  only  best  for  the 
young  seedlings,  but  greatly  reduces  the  expense  of  subse- 
quent thinning. 

503.  Fertilizing  Cotton.  Lint  cotton  makes  an  ex- 
ceedingly light  draft  on  the  necessary  mineral  food  ele- 
ments stored  in  the  soil.  (Fig.  45) .  The  seed,  however, 
draw  more  heavily  than  any  other  field  crop  on  the  supply 
of  nitrogen,  phosphates,  and  potash.  It  is  probable 
that  the  very  general  habit  of  selling  the  cotton  seed  off 
the  farm  is  doing  more  to  exhaust  the  natural  fertility  of 
southern  farms  than  even  the  washing  or  leaching  of  the 
soil.     The  soils  of  the  older  Southern  States  were  once 


342  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

rich  but  must  now  receive  regular  applications  of  fertilizers 
containing  phosphates,  nitrogen,  and  often  potash,  in 
order  to  produce  reasonably  good  crops.  Cotton  is  a 
*' clean  cultivated '*  crop,  and  returns  but  little  organic 
matter  to  the  soil.  Barnyard  manure  is  always  beneficial, 
but  is  not  abundant  in  cotton  growing  countries  because 
the  stock  are  not  kept  in  barns  as  they  are  in  the  colder 
sections. 

504.  Harvesting  and  Ginning.  The  cotton  as  it  is 
picked  from  the  stalks  in  the  field  is  called  seed  cotton. 
It  is  picked  by  hand  and  hauled  to  gins  in  lots  of  1200  to 
1700  pounds,  —  sufficient  to  give  a  bale  of  about  500 
pounds  of  lint.  Machines  have  been  invented  that 
successfully  harvest  cotton,  but  have  not  yet  come  into 
general  use.  The  gins  separate  the  lint  from  the  seed. 
The  proportion  of  lint  to  seed  cotton  is  usually  about  33» 
percent,  varying  from  28  to  42  percent  lint  in  upland 
cotton,  and  only  20  to  30  percent  in  Sea  Island  cotton. 
As  seed  are  worth  only  about  one  cent  a  pound,  and  the 
lint  10  to  15  cents  and  upwards,  it  is  plainly  evident  that 
high  percent  of  lint  is  a  valuable  quality.  After  ginning, 
the  lint  is  pressed  into  rectangular  bales,  wrapped  in 
coarse  burlap  or  bagging,  and  tied  with  steel  ties.  In 
this  condition  it  is  usually  sold  by  the  farmer  in  local 
markets  to  cotton  dealers  who  have  the  bales  compressed 
and  shipped  to  mills  or  cotton  merchants.  The  ''round 
bale"  pressing,  while  seemingly  more  desirable  than  the 
usual  form,  is  not  largely  used. 

505.  Cotton  Seed  Products.  Cotton  seed  were  former- 
ly discarded,  because,  like  the  tomato,  they  were  thought 
to  be  poisonous.  To-day,  however,  cotton  seed  products 
are  staples  oq  the  world's  markets.  Cotton  seed  meal 
is  very  rich  in  protein  and  is  exported  in  large  quantities 


Cotton 


343 


to  European  countries  for  feeding  and  fertilizing  purposes, 
when  perhaps  it  should  be  similarly  used  in  the  south  to 
keep  up  the  fertility  of  her  own  fields.  (See  analysis  in 
appendix.) 

506.  In  recent  years  cottou  seed  meal  is  used  in  making 
bread  and  cakes.  It  is  mixed  with  wheat  flour  to  secure 
leavening  quality.  The  general  use  of  cotton  seed  flour 
in  bread  making  is  to  be  en- 
couraged, not  only  because  it 
is  cheaper,  but  because  it  is 
nearly  5  times  richer  in  protein, 
and  therefore  more  nourishing 
than  wheat  flour.  (See  H  335.) 
The  hulls  have  a  low  feeding 
value,  but  are  largely  used  as 
a  roughage  for  all  kinds  of 
stock.  Cotton  seed  oil  is 
valuable  for  shortening  in 
breadmaking,  being  about  one 
third  more  efficient,  and 
usually  much  cheaper  than 
lard,  or  lard  compounds.  It  is 
now  largely  used  as  a  salad  oil  in  place  of  olive  oil.  The  low 
grade  oils  are  used  in  making  soaps  and  washing  powders. 

507.  Mexican  Boll  Weevil.  The  cotton  root  rot 
fungus,  (K  224),  the  boll  worm,  and  other  important 
cotton  diseases  mentioned  in  chapter  23,  have  been  known 
for  many  years.  Another  serious  insect  pest  of  cotton 
is  the  Mexican  Boll  Weevil.  (Fig.  104.)  In  1904,  it  was 
established  that  the  Texas  cotton  crop  had  been  reduced 
to  nearly  half  by  the  ravages  of  the  boll  weevil.  This 
damage  represented  many  millions  of  dollars,  and  for  a 
time  the  insect  seemed  to  threaten  the  future  of  the  cotton 


Fig.  214, 


Late  Fall  boll  showing  how 
weevils  hide  between  boll  and 
involucre  or  "square." 


344 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


industry.  The  first  public  boll  weevil  convention  was 
held  at  Victoria,  Texas,  in  1895,  and  in  1903  the  Texas 
Legislature  offered  a  reward  of  $50,000  for  the  discovery 
of  a  remedy  for  the  boll  weevil.  Later,  several  important 
conventions  were  held  in  Dallas,  Texas,  and  Shreveport 
and  New  Orleans,  La.  The  Federal  and  State  govern- 
ments made  large  appropriations,  and  a  corps  of  entomol- 


Alap  showing  spread  of  Mexican 
cotton  weevil  over  cotton  growing 
area  of  United  States,  1892-1912. 


Fig.  215.  Cotton  growing  area  of  the  United  States  exclusive  of  Arizona  and 
California,  with  lines  in  heavier  shaded  portion  showing  spread  of  Mexican 
cotton  weevil. — ^After  W.  D.  Hunter,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

ogists  and  cotton  specialists  began  investigations  and  the 
result  was  the  present  satisfactory  means  of  control. 

508.  The  Spread  of  the  Boll  Weevil.  Figure  215  shows 
that  the  advance  of  the  boll  weevil  has  been  northward 
and  eastward,  into  the  humid  regions,  rather  than  west- 
ward. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  weevil  will  continue  to 
advance  rapidly  eastward,  but  will  move  slower  toward  the 
north,  owing  to  the  climatic  obstacles  that  the  weevil  will 
have  to  overcome.  The  dry  summer  and  cold  winters  of 
1910-1912  reduced  somewhat  the  northward  advance  as 


Cotton 


345 


the  map  shows.     The  dry  weather,  cold  winters,  and  open 
nature  of  the  West  seem  to  limit  the  westward  movement. 
509.  Life  History.     The  adult  insects  leave  their  win- 
ter shelter  early  in  the  spring  and  deposit  eggs  in  the 


\ 


^^..''-. 


Fig.  216.  Mexican  Cotton  Weevil.  B,  ap- 
pearance of  normal  square  or  flower  with 
involucre;  A,  "Flared" square  following 
deposit  of  egg  in  unopened  bud ;  C,  Part 
of  flower-bud  removed  to  show  larva. 
After  Dr.  W.  D.  Hunter. 


flower-buds.  When  the  egg 
is  "bhrust  into  the  flower- 
bud  ('.' stung"  as  it  is  some- 
times improperly  called),  the 
''square"  or  involucre  is  soon 
''flared,"  as  shown  in  Fig. 
216,  and  shortly  drops  to  the  ground.  In  about  25  or  30 
days  from  the  laying  of  the  egg,  the  mature  weevils  emerge 
from  the  fallen  flower-buds  and  start  a  new  generation. 
Thus  a  few  weevils,  starting  early  in  the  season,  may,  if 


346 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


conditions  are  favorable,  produce  enough  weevils  to  destroy 
a  field  of  cotton.  The  adult  weevils  hibernate  in  winter 
in  unopened  bolls  or  under  any  kind  of  trash  that  may  be 
available,  especially  in  the  leaves  of  nearby  woods.  During 
the  following  spring,  they  begin  to  emerge  in  considerable 
numbers  after  the  first  few  weeks  of  warm  weather.  They 
feed  on  the  tender  portions  of  the  young  cotton. 

510.  By  using  improved,  early,  rapid  fruiting  varieties 
of  cotton,  and  cultural  methods  that  favor  the  same  re- 
sults, early  planting,  wide  rows,  frequent  tillage,  gathering 
fallen  squares,  and  other  measures, — a  fair  yield  of  cotton 
may  be  secured  in  the  presence  of  the  weevil.  More  than 
thirty  species  of  birds  are  known  to  use  the  boll  weevil  as 
food.  Ants,  parasitic  wasps,  and  flies,  birds,  snakes,  and 
climatic  agencies  assist  man  in  his  fight  to  keep  this  pest 
under  control.  Dry  summer  weather  and  prolonged  cold 
winters  greatly  retard  the  increase  of  weevils. 


1  2 

Fig.  217.  Day  and  night  position  of  leaves  of  cotton  plants.  No.  1.  Expanded  in 
bright  sunlight  ready  to  receive  full  benefit  of  the  sun's  rays.  No.  2.  Night 
position  supposed  to  be  an  adaptation  to  reduce  evaporation  of  moisture  and 
radiation  of  heat.     From  photographs  of  same  plant  from  the  same  position. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


511.  Some  vegetables  and  fruits  should  be  grown 
"just  for  home  use"  if  only  a  back  yard  is  available. 
To  produce  an  abundance  of  vegetables  requires  but  a 
small  plot  of  ground  and  little  labor.  Not  much  space  is 
required  for  even  berries  and  orchard  fruits.  They  give 
a  degree  of  satisfaction  and  refinement  to  home  life  that 
money  cannot  buy.  Except  for  the  occasional  plowing 
and  spading,  the  home  garden  work  may  be  cared  for 
by  the  women  folk,  who  may  thus  bring  food  to  the  family 
table  and  strength,  and  buoyancy  of  spirit  to  themselves. 

512.  The  First  Essential  for  Gardening  is  a  rich, 
warm,  sandy  loam  soil.  If  opportunity  allows,  preference 
should  be  given  to  southern  exposures.     Where  excellence 


IMH 

H 

^ 

9 

^^^^^^^^ 

H 

B 

1 

^^Co^^-^ 

g' 

^^ 

H 

|^^|P^^  ""^^^'^Sl 

bi 

1 

Fig.  218.    "  When  youz  thump  'em  and  deyz  goes  '  kerplunk  '  deyz  ripe.' 
Courtesy  Department  of  Horticulture,  Purdue  University, 

(347) 


348 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


in  the  individual  plants  and  fruits  is  especially  important, 
as  it  is  in  vegetables,  particular  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  selection  and  improvement  of  the  soil.  Early 
maturity,  large  size,  succulence,  and  tenderness  are 
desirable  qualities  which  are  associated  with  rapid 
growth.  This  comes  when  the  land  is  kept  in  good 
tilth  (1[  75)  and  well  supplied  with  humus.     Sandy  loamy 


Fig.  219^rf'omatoes  in  a  cold-frame  ready  to  transplant.  Plants  should  be  gradu- 
ally flSoldened  off  before  transplanting,  and  just  before  moving  should  be 
thoroughly  watered. 

Courtesy  Department  of  Horticulture,  Purdue  University. 

soils  are  preferred  for  gardens  because  they  warm  up  early 
in  the  spring  and  are  easy  to  keep  in  good  tilth.  How- 
ever, they  are  not  absolutely  essential  for  good  gardens. 
Whatever  the  nature  of  the  soil  may  be,  it  should  receive 
heavy  applications  of  manure,  be  plowed  deep  and  kept 
clear  of  weeds  by  frequent  surface  cultivation. 

513.    Forcing.    Forcing    is   a    term    given    to    the 
growing  of  plants  under  artificial  heat  in  order  to  secure 


Vegetable  Gardening  349 

early  vegetables  or  flowers.  We  often  grow  them  slightly 
beyond  their  seedling  stage  under  forcing  conditions, 
using  hot  beds,  cold  frames  (1[  36),  in-door  window  boxes, 
or  in  garden  flats  (1[  15)  that  are  kept  in-doors  in  cool 
weather  and  exposed  to  sunlight  in  fair  weather.  As  the 
seedlings  grow  larger,  they  may  be  replanted  into  small 
pots,  cans  or  boxes  affording  more  space  and  allowed  to 
grow  until  the  season  for  planting  in  the  open  arrives. 

514.  Classes  of  Garden  Crops.  In  studying  the 
cultural  requirements  and  use  of  garden  crops,  we.  may 
for  convenience  divide  them  into  a  number  of  groups 
according  to  their  cultural  requirements.  In  looking  for 
an  explanation  of  why  some  crops  thrive  in  some  seasons 
and  not  in  others,  or  in  some  localities  and  not  in  others, 
it  will  probably  be  found  in  a  consideration  of  their 
moisture  and  temperature  requirements. 

Our  mothers  classify  vegetables  according  to  th^ir  use 
and  flavors.  The  following  classification  will  help  us  to 
group  the  vegetables  according  to  the  similarity  of  their 
cultural  requirements,  and  will  help  us  in  understanding 
and  applying  the  detailed  cultural  directions  given  in 
gardener's  manuals  and  to  appreciate  the  intelligence  that 
is  sometimes  mistaken  for  skill  in  the  gardener. 

515.  Cool  Season  Vegetables,  include  plants  that 
are  not  injured  by  at  least  light  frost.  Some  are  not 
injured  by  even  light  freezing  temperatures  of  short 
duration,  and  will  thrive  in  moderately  cool  weather. 
Crops  belonging  to  this  group  may  be  planted  in  the  open 
early  in  the  season.  Some  forms,  like  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, collards,  celery,  etc.,  may  be  grown  in  the  winter  or 
fall  months  in  mild  climates.  We  may  subdivide  this 
group  as  follows : 

(a)    Early   Cool   Season   Vegetables  are   frost  hardy, 


350  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

early  planted  vegetables  that  have  a  short  growing 
season  and  mature  before  the  season  for  hot  weather 
arrives.  They  do  not  develop  crops  of  good  quality  in 
the  dry  air  of  summer.  They  are  hardy,  however,  to 
light  frost  and  may  be  planted  in  the  open  quite  early. 
Included  in  this  group  are  garden  cress,  kohl-rabi,  leaf 
lettuce,  radishes,  mustard,  peas,  spinach,  and  turnips. 

(b)  The  Late  Cool  Season  Vegetables,  like  the 
above,  are  also  frost  hardy  and  favored  by  cool  weather 
but  Bequire  a  longer  time  to  mature.  They  are  also  easily 
injured  by  early  hot  weather.  To  avoid  this  possibility, 
it  is  usual  to  grow  their  seedlings  by  forcing  in  the  late 
winter  and  to  have  the  plants  well  started  and  ready  to 
set  in  the  open  in  early  spring.  It  is  a  'transplanting 
group"  and  includes  cabbage,  head  lettuce,  and  celery. 
They  are  plants  grown  largely  for  their  foliage. 

(c)  Open  Season  Early  Planted  Vegetables  require 
a  still  longer  period  to  mature.  They  are  favored  by 
cool  moist  weather,  particularly  in  their  young  stages, 
but  once  established  will  thrive  in  warm  summer  tempera- 
tures. Here  belong  the  potato,  beet,  carrot,  parsnip, 
salsify,  onion,  and  the  perennial  vegetables,  asparagus 
and  rhubarb.  It  will  be  noticed  that  they  are  valued 
because  of  their  fleshy  roots,  stems  or  leaf  stalks.  The 
vegetables  in  this  group  are  popular  because  they  have 
comparatively  few  enemies,  have  a  long  period  of  edi- 
bility, and  are  easy  to  care  for  because  they  endure 
moderate  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

516.  Warm  Season  Vegetables  include  crops  that 
are  sensitive  to  even  light  frost  and  do  not  grow  well  in 
even  cool  weather.  They  are  all  native  of  warm  climates 
and  require  summer  temperatures  for  rapid  growth,  and 
the  development  of  large  yields  and  good  quality.     We 


Vegetable  Gardening 


351 


may    divide    them    into    a    short    and    a    long    season 
group : 

(a)  Short  Season  summer  Vegetables  are  usually 
planted  in  open  ground  after  the  frost  and  cool  night 
season  is  safely  passed.  They  may  be  planted  in  the 
open  and  still  have  time  to  mature  in  regions  having  short 
summers.  In  this  group  may  be  mentioned  string  beans, 
lima  beans,  sweet  com,  cucumbers,  muskmelons,  water- 
melons, squash,  pumpkin,  okra,  etc.  The  plants  included 
in  this  group  are  valued  for  their  fleshy  fruits.  These 
crops  demand  warm  weather. 

(b)  Long  Season  Summer  Vegetables  require  a  long 
season  of  summer  temperatures  for  full  development 
and  large  yields.  In  liorthem  climates  having  short 
summers,  it  is  necessary  to  start  the  plants  under  glass 
considerably  in  advance  of 

the  warm  season  in  order 
that  they  may  mature  ahead 
of  early  fall  frosts.  Their 
seedlings  are  quite  delicate, 
which  is  another  reason  for 
growing  the  early  stages 
under  forcing  conditions.  In 
this  group  we  have  the 
tomato,  egg  plant,  pepper, 
etc. 

517.  What  Vegetables 
to  Plant.  For  a  home  gar- 
den a  continuous  supply 
and  a  variety  of  vegetables 
are  desirable.  A  dozen  young 

plants     properly     cared     for    Fig.  220,    Cabbages  are  not  hard  to  grow 
fri  £  !•  if  the  plants  are  given  a  good  start  and 

may  sufhce  tor   one   time,     good  cultivation. 


352 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


We  do  not  want  to  be  compelled  to  eat  cauliflower  merely 
because  it  is  in  season,  or  to  attempt  to  fatten  on  beans 
when  we  crave  a  salad.  There  are  varieties  of  peas, 
beans,  etc.,  that  mature  their  crop  gradually  through  a 
prolonged  period,  and  are  known  as  "kitchen  garden" 
varieties.  Others  mature  their  crop  in  such  short  periods 
that  the  harvest  is  completed  in  two  or  three  pickings  and 
are  known  as  ''market  varieties." 

517a.  Plan  a  Kitchen  Garden.  Secure  several  seed  catalogs 
and  note  carefully  the  descriptions  of  the  different  varieties  of  lettuce, 
radishes,  beans,  etc.,  including  all  the  vegetables  you  wish  to  grow. 
Also  secure  information  from  local  gardeners  about  the  different 
kinds  and  the  usual  time  elapsing  between  seeding  and  harvesting. 

Make  a  Ust  in  column  of  the  varieties  j^ou  desire  to  grow,  putting 
the  earliest  planted  sorts  at  the  head  of  the  list  as  follows : 


Kind  of 
crops 


Variety- 


Usual  date 
of  planting 


Usual  date 
of  harvest 


No.  of  days 

planting  to 

harvest 


517b,  Classify  the  plants  given  in  the  hst  mentioned  above, 
using  the  diagram  given  below.  When  the  hst  is  made,  com- 
pare the  cultural  requirements  of  the  plants  in  each  group. 


Cool  Season  Crops 

Warm  Season  Crops 

Early  cool 
season  crops 

Late  season 
crops 

Open  sea- 
son crops 

Short  sea- 
son crops 

Long  sea- 
son crops 

Salads 

Succulent  fruits. 
Roots 

Vines 

Legumes 

Relishes 

Savory  herbs . .  . 

518.    Market   or   Trucking    Gardens.    People    who 
live  in  large  cities  often  do  not  have  room  for  even  a 


Vegetable  Gardening 


353 


back  yard  garden.  Before  the  development  of  rapid 
transporting  facilities,  cities  depended  upon  small  gardens 
in  near-by  communities  for  their  vegetable  supplies. 
The  old-time  market  garden,  however,  that  formerly 
occupied  a  large  place  in  the  outskirts  of  the  cities,  growing 
a  little  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  vegetables,  has  been 
largely  succeeded  by  the  specialist  growing  large  acreages 
in  celery,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  tomatoes,  etc.,  in  localities 
well  suited  to  these  crops.  The  supplies  are  shipped  in 
car  lots  to  large  cities,  in  refrigerator  cars  when  necessary. 
Early  strawberries,  lettuce,  cauliflower,  etc.,  are  grown 
in  the  winter  in  California,  Texas,  and  Florida,  and 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  nation  in  the  winter  months. 
Later  in  the  season  the  central  states,  followed  by  the 
northern  states,  may  ship  strawberries  and  other  fruits 
back  to  the  South. 

519.    Radishes  and  Lettuce.   Prepare  a  bed  to  grow  radishes  and 

„ lettuce.      Secure    several 

varieties  of  each  from  the 
usual  sources  and  follow 
planting  directions  as 
given  on  the  seed  package. 
If  the  school  is  not  blessed 
with  a  garden  they  may  be 
planted  in  the  home  gar- 
den. Correlate  the  work 
with  these  crops  with  our 
plant  and  soil  studies. 
Use  a  notebook,  making 
dated  notes.  Measure  the 
area  planted  to  each  crop, 
if  only  a  foot,  and  Uke- 
wise  the  crop  harvested. 

520.      Tomatoes    re- 
quire   a    rich    soil    and 

Fig.  221.    Beans  come  in  early  and  every  one  ,  ±  c 

looks  forward  to  the  season's  first  mess.  warm     temperatures    tor 


354  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

rapid  growth,  especially  seedlings.  Plant  seed  in  flats  about  one 
inch  apart  and  transplant  to  pots  or  larger  flats  when  second 
or  third  leaves  appear.  Much  time  will  be  lost  if  the  plants  are 
allowed  to  grow  slender  from  crowding,  poor  light,  or  confinement 
in  close  spaces.  Early  started  tomato  and  other  plants  should  be 
** hardened  off"  before  transplanting  to  the  open.  This  is  done  by 
gradually  exposing  the  plants  to  the  cooler  night  temperatures  and 
being  less  liberal  in  supplying  water  to  the  pots. 


Fig.  222.  Potatoes  should  be  planted  deep.  On  left,  planted  only  two  inches 
deep,  and  as  a  result  some  were  sunburned.  On  right,  planted  four  inches  deep 
— deep  enough  for  the  potatoes  to  be  protected  but  still  easy  to  dig.  Note  the 
growth  of  roots. 

521.  Irish  Potatoes  are  grown  in  every  state  in  the 
Union.  In  the  northern  states  the  crops  are  stored  and 
used  through  the  year.  In  the  South  two  crops  are 
produced.  The  spring  crop  is  usually  rushed  to  market 
to  get  the  benefit  of  high  prices.  The  fall  crop  is  usually 
marketed  more  slowly,  a  part  being  saved  for  seed  for 
the  spring  crop.  The  potato  is  a  tuber,  a  thickened  stem, 
which,  like  root  crops,  shows  good  results  from  deep  break- 
ing. Sandy  loamy  soils,  rich  in  humus  and  plant  fiber, 
are  especially  desirable.  In  the  potato  regions  of  the 
West  rotations  involving  grain  and  the  plowing  under  of 
the  last  cutting  of  alfalfa  have  proven  to  be  highly  profit- 


Vegetable  Gardening  355 

able.  Alfalfa  turned  under  in  this  way  is  equivalent  to 
15  to  20  tons  of  manure.  The  seed  potato,  whether 
quarters  or  whole  potatoes  are  used,  should  be  deeply 
covered,  as  the  tuber  is  formed  on  stems  springing  from 
the  seed  potato.  Hence,  if  the  potato  is  planted  shallow, 
many  of  the  potatoes  in  the  crop  will  be  so  near  the 


Fig.  223.    Germination  and  growth  of  corn  at  55,  70  and  85  degrees  F.  8  days  after 
planting.    After  Prof,  J.  A.  Jeffery,  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 

surface  that  they  will  sun  scald.  (See  Fig.  222.)  Potatoes 
run  out  if  not  selected.  At  harvest  time  the  potato  digger 
should  be  followed  and  seed  saved  from  hills  producing  a 
moderate  number  of  good-sized,  smooth  potatoes. 

522.  Frost  and  Rainfall  Records.  Write  to  the  Weather 
Bureau,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  full  information  as 
to  rainfall  records  and  frost  records  by  months  made  at  the  Observ- 
atory Station  nearest  you.  Ascertain  what  month  in  the  year 
has  the  heaviest  average  rainfall  and  what  month  the  lowest. 

523.  Test  Soil  Temperatures  in  your  garden  (see  ^  94). 
With  a  dairy  thermometer  note  the  temperatures  at  the  surface 
and  3  inches  below  the  surface  once  a  week.  Coriipare  these  with 
the  germination  temperatures  given  in  ^  26. 


CHAPTER  XLVIII 
SMALL  FRUITS  AND   ORCHARD   FRUITS 

524.  Strawberries,  blackberries,  raspberries,  to- 
gether with  currants,  gooseberries,  and  a  few  less  familiar 
forms,  are  classed  as  small  fruits.  The  first  two  are 
grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country,  while  the  others 
are  successful  only  in  the  northern  or  cooler  parts  of  the 
United  States.  The  berries  are  easy  to  grow  and  popular 
because  of  their  rich  acid  flavors.  Grapes  may  be  classed 
with  the  small  fruits  also. 

525.  Strawberries  are  easy  to  raise  and  easy  to 
propagate.    Light  sandy  soils  are  generally  preferred, 


Fig.  224.    Ideal  orchard  condition.     The  trees  are  the  only  crop  on  the 

pJote  the  heading  of  the  trees,  and  the  absence  of  weeds  and  grass. 
Courtesy  Prof.  C.  G.  Woodbury,  Department  of  Horticulture,  Purdue  University. 

(356) 


Small  Fruits  and  Orchard  Fruits 


357 


though  some  varieties  do  well  on  heavy  lands.  Land 
intended  for  strawberries  should  be  previously  grown  in 
some  clean  cultivated  crop.  Sometimes,  especially  in 
the  South,  the  plants  are  set  out  in  late  summer  or  early 
fall.  This  gives  plants  strong  enough  to  bear  a  heavy 
crop  the  following  spring,  if  the  season  be  favorable. 
In  the  North  the  plants  are  more  usually  set  out  in  early 
spring  and 
allowed  to 
grow  through 
the  first  sum- 
mer.  Any 
flowers  that 
come  out  are 
pinched  off 
to  keep  the 
plants  from 
being  weak- 
ened by  fruit- 
ing.  Very 
strong  plants 
are  secured 
in  this  way 
which  will 
produce 
heavy  crops 
one  year  from 

planting.  It  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  to  secure  more 
than  two  crops  from  the  same  planting  because  the  plants 
become  so  thick  that  they  are  weak  and  not  so  fruitful. 

526.  Hills  Versus  Matted  Rows.  Where  straw- 
berries are  planted  in  small  areas  in  small  gardens,  it 
is  usual  to  set  the  plants  about  12  to  20  inches  apart  in 


Fig  225.    A  strong  fruitful  strawberry  plant  grown  by  the 
hill  system.    See  colored  plate. 

Courtesy  Mr.  Will  B.  Munson. 


358  Elementary  Principles  af  Agriculture 

rows  3  feet  apart.  The  runners  or  stolons  put  out  by 
the  plants  are  pinched  off  at  regular  intervals.  This 
causes  the  formation  of  strong  stocks  which  produce  heavy 
crops  of  large  berries.  The  hill  system  requires  a  great 
deal  of  care.  Where  large  plantings  are  made  the  bed 
or  matted  row  plan  is  followed.  The  plants  are  set 
in  rows  3  or  4  feet  apart.  The  first  runners  are  cut  off 
as  in  the  hill  system  in  order  to  produce  stronger  plants. 
The  late  runners,  however,  are  trained  to  a  bed  12-24 
inches  wide  and  are  allowed  to  root. 

527.  Mulching.  In  the  North  it  is  usual  to  scatter 
a  layer  of  straw  three  to  five  inches  deep  over  the  straw- 
berry plants  late  in  the  fall.  This  gives  protection  to 
the  plants  against  the  injurious  effects  of  rapid  freezing 
and  thawing  through  the  winter.  In  early  spring  the 
straw  is  raked  into  the  middles  and  under  the  leaves. 
If  late  frosts  are  threatened,  the  plants  are  covered  for 
the  night  with  straw.  The  straw  in  the  middles  acts 
as  a  mulch  to  retain  moisture.  In  the  lower  South  the 
plants  grow  through  the  winter  and  the  straw  is  used 
largely  as  a  mulch  and  for  keeping  the  berries  clean. 

528.  Selecting  Varieties.  There  are  many  varieties 
of  strawberries  differing  as  to  the  quality  of  the  fruits, 
time  of  ripening,  and  their  adaptability  to  particular 
locations  and  soil.  Some  varieties  of  strawberries  produce 
only  pistillate  flowers  (If  171)  and  will  not  produce  fruit 
unless  varieties  having  stamens  are  planted  near  them. 

529.  Blackberries,  Raspberries  and  Dewberries  are 
closely  related  and  have  similar  fruiting  habits.  The 
roots  are  perennial  but  the  stems  grow  one  season  and 
fruit  the  next.  Through  the  first  season  the  stems  grow 
up  and  produce  a  number  of  lateral  branches,  especially 
if  the  shoot  has  been  headed-in  in  the  summer  (If  177). 


Small  Fruits  and  Orchard  Fruits 


359 


In  the  following  spring  these  branches  bear  the  flower 
clusters,  followed  of  course  by  the  fruit.  These  stems, 
or  canes,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  die  back  after 
the  harvest  and  new  canes  spring  up  from  the  old  roots, 
which  in  turn  bear  the  fruits  in  the  following  season. 
These  old  canes  should  be  cut  out  shortly  after  harvest. 
530.     Blackberries    are    widely    cultivated    and    are 


Fig.  226.    Everybody  likes  berries!  —  and  they  are  so  easy  to  grow.    (Dewberries). 
Courtesy  Mr.  F.  T.  Ramsey. 

highly  prized  for  their  fruits.  Dewberries  have  trailing 
vines  and  for  this  reason  are  not  so  popular  as  the  fine 
quality  of  their  fruit  would  suggest.  The  raspberries  are 
confined  largely  to  the  north  central  and  eastern  states. 
They  are  not  hardy  in  the  extreme  North  or  very  fruitful 
in  the  South  and  West. 

531.  Gooseberries  and  Currants  are  low  growing 
hardy  shrubs.  They  are  more  successful  in  the  north 
central  and  eastern  states  and  are  not  generally  grown 


360 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


in  the  South.  They  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  acid 
berries,  which  are  gathered  green  and  used  for  making 
jellies  or  canned  and  used  for  pies  and  sauces  as  wanted. 

Gooseberries  are  very 
fruitful  in  the  more 
northern  states  and 
Canada. 

532.  Grapes  are 
usually  trellised,  as  in- 
dicated  in  ^  189. 
With  the  exception  of 
the  European  grapes 
so  generally  grown  in 
California,  the  varie- 
ties of  grapes  largely 
cultivated  in  America 
have  been  produced 
from  the  several 
native  species,  mostly 
during  the  last  half 
century.  The  Euro- 
pean varieties  are  not 
resistant  to  the 
phyloxera,  a  small  in- 
sect that  attacks  the 
roots. 

533.  Grapes  are  easy  to  grow  and  succeed  in  most 
any  climate,  provided  the  proper  attention  be  given  to 
spraying  to  prevent  damage  from  the  several  species 
of  fungi,  such  as  black  rot  (Fig.  92),  downy  mildew 
(Fig.  90),  powdery  mildew  and  anthracnose.  The 
preventative  is  to  spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  5-5-50, 
at  frequent   intervals   until   near   the   ripening   period. 


Fig.  227.     Grape  vines  will  bear  an  abundance 
of  fruit  but  they  must  be  sprayed  to  prevent 
black  rot  and  other  fungi.     Top,  from  un- 
sprayed  vines;  bottom,  from  spraj^ed  vines. 
Courtesy  Mr.  Will  B.  Munson. 


Small  Fruits  and  Orchard  Fruits  361 

For  the  later  sprayings  ammoniacal  copper  sulfate  is 
used.  Infection  usually  takes  place  with  each  rain, 
hence  the  idea  is  to  always  have  the  leaves,  vines,  and 
young  fruits  coated  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  fre- 
quency of  the  spraying  will  therefore  depend  upon  the  rains. 

ORCHARD  FRUITS 

534.  In  Locating  Orchards  consideration  should  be 
given  to  the  character  and  slope  of  the  land,  and  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  If  the  plantings  are 
to  be  large,  with  the  idea  of  supplying  distant  markets, 
transportation  facilities  should  be  carefully  investigated. 

535.  In  Laying  Out  Orchards  care  should  be  taken 
to  get  the  trees  planted  in  straight  checked  rows.  After 
the  trees  are  pruned  and  set  out  (If  185-188)  it  is  well 
to  observe  the  trees  frequently  to  note  their  progress. 
Young  trees  are  sometimes  barked  by  rabbits,  or  the 
bark  becomes  sun  scalded  if  they  do  not  grow  off  readily. 
Protection  from  rabbits  may  be  given  by  wrapping 
with  paper  or  thin  boards,  etc.  In  apple  orchards, 
owing  to  the  spreading  growth  of  the  trees,  it  is  usual  to 
set  them  30  to  40  feet  apart.  Pears  grow  more  erect, 
and  20  by  20  feet  is  usually  sufficient.  The  richness  of 
the  soils  and  the  rainfall  affect  the  size  of  the  trees. 
Pome  fruits  are  naturally  slow  to  come  into  bearing. 
Apples  may  produce  some  fruits  during  the  fourth  or 
fifth  years  from  setting  out,  though  it  is  usually  six  to 
eight  years  before  heavy  crops  are  produced.  Pears 
are  slower,  requiring  six  to  ten  years  before  heavy  fruiting 
commences,  depending  somewhat  upon  the  variety,  soil 
conditions,  and  care  given  to  the  pruning  of  the  trees 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  land.     (See  If  159-160.) 

536.  Young   Orchards    should    be    well   tilled    and 


362  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

efforts  made  to  encourage  rapid  growth  in  the  young 
trees.  Other  crops  in  young  orchards  are  permissible 
if  due  precaution  be  exercised  to  see  that  they  do  not  rob 
the  trees  of  their  moisture  and  light.  Tall-growing  plants 
like  corn  should  never  be  planted  in  orchards.  Low- 
growing  crops  like  strawberries,  peanuts,  beans,  and  other 
garden  crops  are  sometimes  grown  in  young  orchards 
and  cause  no  injury  if  plenty  of  space  is  allowed  for  the 
trees.  Hay  or  other  untilled  crops,  as  well  as  rank  growing 
weeds,  are  not  usual  in  successful  orchards. 

537.  Ripening  Wood.  Orchard  trees  make  their 
largest  growth  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  season. 
The  branches  do  not  grow  in  length  very  much  in  the 
late  summer.  The  natural  tendency  is  to  use  this  period 
for  ripening  the  young  wood  and  storing  food  in  the 
branches  for  the  next  spring's  growth  of  stem  and  fruit 
(If  159-160).  The  suggestion  therefore  naturally  arises 
that  the  treatment  of  orchards  should  look  carefully  to 
conserving  the  spring  moisture  supply  to  the  trees,  and 
through  the  summer  to  protect  them  from  extremes  of 
dryness  or  other  conditions  that  would  affect  the  ripening 
of  the  branches.  Disc  harrows  and  other  mulch-making 
implements  are  much  used  in  tilling  orchards.  Some- 
times orchards  are  sodded  down,  but  as  a  rule  this  practice 
is  not  desirable,  except  on  lands  subject  to  washing. 

538.  Recognizing  Fruit  and  Leaf  Buds.  Branches  of  the 
common  fruit  trees  of  the  community  should  be  brought  into 
school  and  study  given  to  the  buds  until  all  members  of  the  class 
are  able  to  distinguish  the  leaf  buds  from  the  flower  buds  and  to 
see  their  relation  to  the  season  of  gi'owth  and  the  age  of  the  branches. 

539.  Harvesting  and  Marketing.  Fruits  are  mar- 
keted in  various  ways,  usually  in  half-bushel  or  bushel 
baskets  or  boxes  and  sometimes  in  barrels  or  even  sold 


Small  Fruits  and  Orchard  Fruits  363 

in  bulk,  depending  upon  the  quality  of  the  fruit  and  the 
tone  of  the  market.  Progressive  growers  invariably  use 
attractive  boxes  for  shipping.  Before  packing  for  mar- 
keting, all  fruits  should  be  carefully  graded.  Large 
apples  mixed  with  small  apples  sell  at  the  price  of  the  small 
apples.  The  varieties  should  not  be  mixed  in  the  pack- 
ages. In  grading  consideration  should  be  given  to  uni- 
formity of  size,  color,  soundness,  and  ripeness.  In  harvest- 
ing and  marketing  peaches  and  plums,  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  bruising  the  fruits. 

540.  The  Pome  Fruits  include  the  apple,  pear  and 
quince.  The  apple  is  the  most  important  fruit  of  the 
temperate  region.  The  wide  variation  in  the  maturing 
periods  of  the  many  varieties,  the  adaptability  of  the 
fruit  to  keeping  and  transportation,  and  the  productive- 
ness and  long  life  of  the  trees  make  it  the  most  widely 
known  fruit.  It  is  grown  commercially  in  nearly  every 
section  except  in  the  extreme  South. 

541.  The  Pear  is  a  fruit  of  great  flavor  and  pro- 
ductiveness but  is  not  so  widely  cultivated.  They  are 
not  generally  grown  in  the  extreme  North  or  upper  plains 
region,  but  are  popular  in  the  more  southern  regions. 
Pears  are  much  grown  in  arid  regions  where  irrigation 
conditions  occur.  The  quince  is  confined  to  the  lake 
region  and  states  farther  east. 

542.  Apple  Trees  will  need  some  pruning  every 
year.  The  early  pruning  is  for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  head  form  low.  If  the  trees  are  kept  low  much  expense 
is  saved  in  thinning  and  harvesting,  and  the  spraying  is 
much  easier  to  do.  The  pruning  of  old  trees  will  be  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  dead  or  diseased  limbs  and  thin- 
ning out  the  interior  limbs  to  admit  light,  to  encourage 
the  formation  of  fruit  spurs  on  the  interior  branches. 


364 


Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 


543.  Spraying.  The  principal  fungus  diseases  to  be 
prevented  in  the  case  of  the  apple  are  scab,  apple  blotch, 
bitter  rot  and  black  rot.  The  insects  affecting  the  apple 
most  seriously  are  codling  moth  (Fig.  101)  curculio 
(Fig.  95),  San  Jose  scale  (pronounced  san  ho-sa')  (Fig.  100), 
and  in  some  sections  the  woolly  aphis  and  leaf  aphis. 
The  combination  sprays  usually  applied  are  as  follows: 


Fig.  228.  B.  To  control  apple  scab  spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture  just  before  the 
cluster  buds  open.  A.  The  time  for  effective  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  to 
control  the  codling  moth  is  just  after  the  petals  have  fallen. 

Courtesy  Department  of  Horticulture,  Purdue  University. 

1st.  Dormant  Spray.  When  the  trees  are  dormant,  lime- 
sulfur  wash  or  soluble  oils  may  be  used  if  scale  insects  are  present. 
If  serious  fungus  conditions  are  threatened,  spray  with  copper 
suKate  solution.    (See  Fig.  102.) 

2d.  Cluster  Spray,  given  just  as  the  cluster  buds  open,  but 
before  the  blossoms  have  opened  (Fig.  228a).  Use  Bordeaux  mixture 
for  apple  scab,  black  rot,  and  if  canker  worms  are  threatened  add 
two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 


Small  Fruits  and  Orchard  Fruits 


365 


3d.  Calyx  Spray,  given  just  after  the  petals  have  shed  and 
while  the  calyx  end  of  the  young  fruits  is  still  open  and  erect.  Use 
Bordeaux  mixture  with  1  to  2  pounds  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead 
added  for  the  special  control  of  the  codling  moth,  curculio  and  the 
less  important  insects.  For  the  codling  moth,  it  is  especially  desir- 
able that  the  spray  be  made  while  the  young  fruits  are  open  and 
erect.  The  codling  moth  usually  lays  the  egg  at  the  calyx  end  of 
the  young  fruits  and  if  the  spray  is  present,  the  young  larvae  get 
the  poison  with  their  first  mouthful. 

4th.  Later  Sprayings  are  given  at  intervals  of  two  or  three 
weeks   depending   upon   conditions,    using   Bordeaux   mixture   to 


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Fig.  229.  A  peach  tree  four  years  old  that  has  been  headed-in  every  year.  An 
open  tree  like  this  that  has  been  regularly  headed-in  has  many  small  fruiting 
branches  on  the  interior  limbs. 

Photo.  Prof.  W.  H,  Chandler,  University  of  Missouri. 


366  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

which  are  added  arsenate  of  lead  to  control  the  later  broods  of  the 
codling  moth,  and  the  fungus  diseases  previously  mentioned. 

544.  The  Cultivated  Stone  Fruits  include  the  peach, 
apricot,  nectarine,  plum  and  cherry.  The  fruits  are 
usually  well  colored,  and  highly  flavored  when  ripe. 
They  are  firm  up  to  the  full  ripening  period  at  which  time 
they  develop  a  high  content  of  sugar  and  become  soft. 
They  may  be  gathered  when  mature,  but  before  ripening, 
and  transported  long  distances,  especially  in  refrigerator 
cars.  The  ripening  process  goes  on  after  the  fruit  is 
gathered.  The  stone  fruits  are  usually  propagated  by 
budding  and  the  trees  set  into  the  orchard  at  one  year 
from  the  bud,  in  rows  12  to  18  feet  apart.  The  young 
trees  are  headed  back  to  a  short  stem  15  to  24  inches  from 
the  ground.  The  annual  pruning  is  not  a  cutting-out  pro- 
cess, as  in  the  pome  fruits,  but  a  heading-in  of  the  branches 
by  cutting  off  their  ends.  This  makes  the  branches 
stouter  and  better  able  to  support  the  crop  of  fruits. 
(See  H  188.)  The  curcuUo  and  the  brown  rot  (Fig.  91) 
are  the  most  generally  serious  diseases  to  stone  fruits. 
Spraying  with  self-boiled,  lime-sulfur  wash  affords  pro- 
tection from  the  brown  rot,  and  when  combined  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  also  the  curculio. 

545.  Frost  Injury.  The  stone  fruits  are  subject  to 
winter  killing  of  buds,  and  even  branches  in  the  central 
and  northern  states.  A  few  warm  days  will  cause  early 
blooming,  with  consequent  danger  of  injury  by  late  frost. 
For  this  reason  the  site  for  peach  or  plum  orchards  should 
be  preferably  located  on  ridges  or  elevated  flats  with  steep 
slopes  into  near-by  valleys.  In  such  situations  the  cool 
air  drains  off  at  night,  and  as  a  rule  trees  in  such  situations 
are  later  in  flowering  than  they  would  be  in  the  valleys, 
and  hence  will  oftener  escape  frost  injury. 


APPENDIX  A 
BOOKS   ON  AGRICULTURE 

The  following  books  are  recommended  for  use  of  teachers  for 
reference,  and  for  supplementary  reading  in  school  work.  The 
more  important  ones  are  starred  thus.* 

Primarily  for  Teachers  — 

*The  Corn  Lady,  Field.     A.  Flanagan,  Chicago, 
*The  Story  of  the  Soil,  Hopkins.     Gorham  Press,  Boston 
Report    Country    Life    Commission.     Sturgis    &    Walton, 

New  York. 
The  Rural  Life  Problem,  Plunkett.     Macmillan  Co. 
Farm  Boys  and  Girls,  McKeever.     Macmillan  Co. 
The  American  Rural  School,  Foight.     Macmillan  Co. 
The  Story  of  Cotton.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

Plants,  Crops  and  Soils  — 

*Cereals  in  America,  Hunt.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York. 
Forage  and  Fiber  Crops,  Hunt.     Orange  Judd  Co. 
♦Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  Bailey.     Macmillan  Co. 
*Manual  of  Gardening,  Bailey.     Macmillan  Co. 
*The  Book  of  Alfalfa,  Coburn.     Orange  Judd  Co. 
Alfalfa  in  America,  Wing.     Sanders  Pub.  Co.,  Chicago. 
Practical  Botany,  Bergen  and  Caldwell.     Ginn  &  Co. 
♦Disease  in  Plants,  Ward.     Macmillan  Co. 
Principles    of    Plant    Culture,    Goff.     University    Co-op., 

Madison,  Wis. 
♦Irrigation  and  Drainage,  King.     Macmillan  Co. 
Vegetable  Gardening,  Watts.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York. 
♦Soil  Fertihty  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  Hopkins.     Ginn 

&Co. 
First  Book  of  Farming,  Goodrich.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Animal  Husbandry  — 

The  Care  of  Animals,  Mayo.     Macmillan  Co. 
Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  Jordan.     Macmillan  Co. 
♦Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Plumb. 
♦Profitable  Feeding,  Smith. 
Swine  in  America,  Coburn.     Orange  Judd  Co. 
Principles  of  Poultry  Culture,  Robinson.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Miscellaneous  — 

♦Physics  of  Agriculture,  King.     F.  H.  King,  Madison,  Wis. 
The  Young  Farmer,  Hunt.     Orange  Judd  Co. 
Farm  Machinery,  Davidson  and  Chase.     Orange  Judd  Co 
♦Plants   and   Animals   Under   Domestication,    Darwin.     D. 
Appleton  Co.,  New  York. 

(367) 


APPENDIX  B 


INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 

1.  The  Governing  Principles  in  the  use  of  insecticides  and 
fungicides  were  given  in  Chapters  21,  22  and  23.  Below,  brief 
directions  for  making  the  most  generally  used  mixtures  are  given. 
More  detailed  information  may  be  secured  from  your  State  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  or  thelJ.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
or  manufacturers  of  spraying  machinery. 

2.  Copper  Sulfate  Solution.  Soluble  copper  salts  are  very 
poisonous  to  fungi  and  algae  in  even  very  dilute  solution.  They 
are  only  moderately  so  to  higher  plants  and  animals.  There  is 
no  case  on  record  of  anyone  becoming  poisoned  from  eating  fruit 
sprayed  with  copper  salts.  Because  of  its  cheapness  copper  sulfate 
is  most  generally  used  for  fungicide  solutions.  When  used  to  spray 
plants  in  leaf  it  is  necessary  to  add  lime  to  neutralize  the  scorching 
acid  effect  on  the  leaves  and  to  give  the  mixture  adhesive  quahty. 
For  spraying  dormant  trees  it  is  used  without  the  lime,  as  follovi's: 

Copper  sulfate,  (Blue  Stone) 3  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

3.  Bordeaux  Mixture  is  the  most  generally  used  fungicide. 
The  standard  formula  is  4  pounds  of  copper  sulfate,  4  pounds  of 
fresh  lime  and  50  gallons  of  water,  and  is  usually  referred  to  as  the 

4-4-50  formula.  The  pro- 
portions are  varied  for 
special  purposes,  as  3-9- 
50  for  peadh  trees  which 
have  delicate  foliage. 

In  preparing,  use  two 
half-barrels,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  230.  The  copper  sul- 
fate should  be  pulverized 
and  put  into  a  coarse 
burlap  sack  and  sus- 
pended in  water  until  dis- 
Fig.230.    Making  Bordeaux  mixture.  solved.      By  using  warm 

(368) 


Appendix  B  369 

water  the  dissolving  process  may  be  hastened.  Use  wooden  tubs  for 
the  copper  sulfate.  The  fresh  lime  should  be  mixed  with  water  in 
another  vessel,  using  only  a  small  amount  of  water  at  first,  adding 
as  the  slacking  progresses.  Add  water  till  a  thin  batter  is  formed. 
Stir  freely  to  destroy  even  small  lumps.  Add  more  water  and 
strain  through  a  burlap  sack.  Dilute  the  milk  of  lime  to  about 
25  gallons,  and  likewise  the  copper  sulfate.  Mix  by  pouring  in 
equal  quantities  of  each  into  a  third  vessel,  as  suggested  by  Fig.  230. 
Success  in  preparing  Bordeaux  mixture  of  uniform  quahty, 
color,  and  consistency  will  depend  on  the  materials  and  the  manner 
of  mixing.  When  properly  prepared,  it  has  a  sky-blue  color.  If 
the  lime  is  not  fresh,  a  greenish  color  sometimes  results,  which 
indicates  that  more  lime  is  needed.  It  is  advisable  to  have  an  excess 
of  lime.  When  peaches  and  other  plants  with  delicate  foliage  are 
to  be  sprayed,  three  times  as  much  lime  as  copper  sulfate  is  used. 

4.  Ammoniacal  Copper  Carbonate  Solution  is  used  some- 
times in  spraying  ornamentals  or  for  the  last  spraying  of  grapes, 
when  the  Bordeaux  mixture  would  be  objectionable. 

Copper  carbonate 5  ounces 

Strong  ammonia  (26°  Baume') 2to3  pints 

Water 50  gallons 

5.  Insecticides  With  Bordeaux  Mixture.  It  is  often  desirable 
to  combine  an  insecticide  with  a  fungicide  in  order  to  obviate  the 
necessity  of  making  two  sprayings.  This  is  often  done  when 
internal  poisons,  like  arsenate  of  lead,  Paris  Green,  London  Purple, 
are  used.  They  may  be  added  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  rate 
indicated  by  the  formula  usual  for  insecticides. 

6.  Lime  and  Sulfur  Preparations  are  much  used  to  destroy 
scale  insects.  They  act  as  a  mild  fungicide  also.  The  preparations 
in  common  use  vary  as  to  the  proportions  of  lime  and  sulfur. 

7.  Fire-Boiled  Lime-Sulfur  Wash.    Use  the  following: 

Fresh  Hme 15  to  30  pounds 

Flowers  of  sulfur 15  pounds 

Water  to  make 50  gallons 

When  the  lime  is  perfectly  fresh,  the  smaller  quantity  named 

above  will  answer.  To  make  the  preparation,  proceed  as  follows: 
Slake  the  lime  with  hot  water,  adding  the  water  slowly  until  about 
ten  gallons  are  used.  Then  add  the  sifted  sulfur  and  stir  until 
thoroughly  mixed.     Boil  this  mixture  for  from  forty-five  to  sixty 


370  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

minutes  to  thoroughly  dissolve  the  sulfur.  The  sulfur  dissolves 
most  easily  in  a  thin,  milky  solution  of  lime,  and,  for  this  reason, 
no  more  water  is  used  in  dissolving  the  sulfur  than  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  mixture  from  becoming  pasty.  When  the  sulfur  is  thor- 
oughly dissolved,  pass  the  solution  through  a  strainer  and  dilute  to 
the  desired  concentration  with  hot  water.  The  mixture  should  be 
prepared  just  as  needed,  and  applied  while  still  warm. 

8.  Self-Boiled  Lime-Sulfur  Wash  is  a  combination  of  lime 
and  sulfur  boiled  only  with  the  heat  of  the  slaking  lime.  It  is 
sometimes  used  for  spraying  peaches  as  a  substitute  for  Bordeaux 
mixture  when  the  latter  is  injurious  to  the  foHage. 

SuKur,  free  from  lumps 10  pounds 

Fresh  lime 10  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

Place  the  Hme  in  a  barrel,  spread  to  keep  the  sulfur  off  the 
bottom  of  the  barrel  and  add  about  a  gallon  of  water  to  start  it  to 
slaking.  Now  add  the  sulfur  and  enough  water  to  make  the 
mixture  into  a  paste,  about  3  to  4  gallons.  Stir  vigorously  to 
prevent  caking  at  the  bottom.  After  the  violent  boiling  due  to  the 
slaking  lime  is  over,  dilute  freely  to  stop  the  boiling;  strain  to 
remove  the  coarse  particles  of  lime  and  add  the  full  quantity  of 
water. 

9.  Arsenical  Insecticides.  Formerly  London  Purple  and 
Paris  Green  were  much  used  for  insecticides.  These  substances 
are  heavy  and  are  somewhat  troublesome  to  keep  mixed  with  the 
water,  and  are  likely  to  injure  the  foliage.  In  recent  years  arsenate 
of  lead  has  come  into  general  use  and  has  largely  replaced  other 
arsenic  compounds  used  for  insecticides.  It  stays  in  suspension 
longer  and  adheres  better  and  is  less  likely  to  injure  the  foliage. 

Arsenate  of  lead 1  to  3  pounds 

Water  (or  Bordeaux  or  lime-sulfur) 50  gallons 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  purchased  in  the  form  of  dry  powder 
or  as  a  putty-like  paste.  .As  there  are  many  grades  of  arsenate  of 
lead  on  the  market  some  caution  should  be  exercised  in  making 
purchases. 

10.  Kerosene  Preparations.  Kerosene  oil  is  an  external 
irritant  and  is  very  effective  in  killing  insects.  It  can  not  be  applied 
to  plants,  however,  in  its  crude  form,  without  producing  serious 


Appendix  B 


371 


injury.  Resort  is  had,  therefore,  to  various  substances  to  dilute 
and  carry  the  oil,  such  as  soap-suds,  milk,  milk  of  lime,  or  even 
water  alone,  when  mixed  with  the  water  in  forming  the  spray. 
Kerosene  preparations  should  be  applied  to  plants  with  great 
caution.     They  are  very  efficient  in  fighting  certain  injurious  insects, 

but  if  not  properly  applied,  serious  injury  to 

the  plant  may  result. 

11.  Kerosene  Emulsion.  Used  for  scale 
and  other  sucking  insects.  Dissolve  J^-pound 
of  hai'd  soap  in  one  gallon  of  boiUng  water. 
Then  add  two  gallons  of  kerosene  oil  to  the 
water  and  thoroughly  mix  by  pumping  the 
entire  mixture  through  a  bucket  sprayer  until 
an  emulsion  is  formed.  (Fig.  231.)  The  bulk 
of  the  mixtm-e  will  increase  about  one  half  in 
the  process  and  assume  the  consistency  of 
cream.  Now  dilute  to  from  twenty  to  thirty 
gallons  as  desired. 

12.  Soluble  or  Miscible  Oils.  In  recent 
years  preparations  of  emulsions  of  the  common 
oils  have  come  into  use.  They  are  probably 
not  so  good  as  lime-sulfur  preparations  but 

may  be  applied  with  less  annoyance  when  only  a  few  plants  are  to  be 
sprayed.  They  are  usually  sold  under  proprietary  names.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  to  dilute  with  water  and  spray  as  directed. 

13.  Dust  Applications  of  Insecticides  have  not  been  so  uni- 
formly satisfactory  as  the  liquid  apphcations  and  are  little  used. 

14.  Spraying  Domestic  Animals  with  poisons  is  sometimes 
recommended  to  kill  insects,  ticks,  and  other  parasites.  Various 
preparations  of  oils  and  arsenical  preparations  are  used.  London 
Purple,  dusted  on  the  perches,  nests,  and  bodies  of  poultry,  is  a  very 
satisfactory  way  to  destroy  mites  on  poultry.  If  apphed  regularly, 
it  becomes  a  preventive. 


Fig.  231.  Hand-bucket 
spray  pump.  A 
longer  hose  than  that 
shown  is  needed  for 
convenient  using. 


APPENDIX   C 

Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs 


Pounds  per  hundred 

« 

1 

g 
2 

i4 

s 

1 

Green  Feeds. 

Com  fodder,  whole  plant    

Kaffir  com  fodder 

73.4 
73.0 
69.4 
65.1 

71.8 
83.6 

42.2 
30.0 
50.9 
19.2 

16.0 
13.2 

7.7 
9.9 
8.8 

15.3 

20.8 
4.6 

16.0 
8.4 

10.7 
7.6 
9.2 
9.6 

71.1 
78.9 
86.7 
90.6 
88.6 

1.5 
2.0 
1.8 

2.8 

2.7 
1.7 

2.7 
5.5 
1.8 
8.0 

6.1 
4.4 
6.4 
5.7 

10.1 
5.5 
6.6 
3.1 

10.4 
7.4 
7.5 

10.8 
5.1 
4.2 

1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
0.8 
1.0 

2.0 
2.3 
1.6 
4.1 

4.8 
2.4 

4.5 
6.0 
2.5 

4.8 

7.4 

5.9 

3.8 

12.8 

11.1 

7.4 

12.4 

10.2 

20.3 

14.3 

16.6 

10.7 

4.0 

3.4 

1.5 
2.1 
1.5 
1.3 
1.1 

6.7 
6.9 
8.8 
9.1 

7.4 
4.8 

14.3 
21.4 
15.8 
26.8 

27.2 
29.0 
34.8 
29.1 
32.1 
27.2 
21.9 
14.0 
33.0 
25.0 
20.1 
23.6 
37.0 
38.1 

1.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.3 

15.5 
15.1 
16.8 
17.6 

12.3 
7.1 

34.7 
35.7 
28.3 
30.6 

40.6 
45.0 
45.7 
39.8 
34.8 
42.1 
33.8 
35.1 
53.6 
42.7 
42.2 
42.7 
42.4 
43.4 

24.7 

17.3 

9.9 

5.9 

7.6 

0.9 
0.7 

Sorghum  fodder 

1.6 

Kentucky  Blue  grass 

1.3 

Alfalfa   

1.0 

0.4 

Dry  Hay  and  Fodders. 

Com  fodder,  entire  plant    

Corn  fodder,  leaves  only 

Com   husks  from  ears 

1.6 
1.4 
0.7 
1.6 

Hay  from 

Oats 

2.7 

Timothy 

2.5 

Prairie  grass   

1.5 

.Tnhnson  itrnsB 

2.7 

Millet 

2.9 

2.5 

4.5 

1.1 

3.8 

Alfalfa  average    

2.2 

Cowpea      

2.9 

Peanut  vines,  without  nuts    . . . 

4.6 
2.3 

Wheat  straw 

1.8 

Roots  and  Tubers. 

Sweet  Potatoes 

0.4 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0.4 

(372) 


Appendix  C 


APPENDIX  C,  continued 
Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs,  continued 


373 


Grains  and  Seeds. 
Corn,  minimum    .  .  . 
Corn,  maximum. .  .  . 

Corn,  average 

Kaffir  corn 

Barley    

Oats 

Sunflower  seed  .  .  .  . 
Cotton-seed,  whole  . 
Cotton  seed,  hulls  .  . 
Cotton-seed  meal . .  . 

Peanut  hulls 

Peanut,  kernel  only. 
Cowpeas 


By-Products  of  Mills. 

Corncob . 

Gem  from  corn 

Gem  meal  from  com.  . 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings   .  . .  . 

Wheat  shorts 

Rice  bran 


Dairy  Products. 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk,  gravity  creaming 

Skim  milk,  separator 

Buttermilk 

Whey 


By-Products, 
Dried  blood 
Meat  scraps 
Tankage  .  . . 


Packery. 


Pounds  per  hundred 


G.2 

10.4 

10.6 

12.5 

10.9 

11.0 

8.6 

5.8 

ll.l 

8.2 

9.0 

7.5 

11.9 


10.7 
10.7 

8.1 
11.9 
12.1 
11.8 

9.7 


87.2 
99.4 
90.6 
91.0 
93.8 


92.0 
78.0 
92.0 


1.0 
2.6 
1.5 
1.3 
2.4 
3.0 
2.6 
2.9 
2.8 
7.8 
3.4 
2.4 
3.4 


1.4* 
4.0 
1.3 
5.8 
3.3 
4.6 
10.0 


0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 


17.39 


7.5 
11.8 
10.3 
10.9 
12.4 
ll.S 
16.3 
14.5 

4.2 
42.3 

6.6 
27.9 
23.5 


2.4 
9.8 
11.1 
15.4 
15.6 
14.9 
12.1 


3.6 
3.3 
3.2 
3.0 
0.6 


87.0 
49.72 
60.0 


0.9 

4.8 

2.2 

1.9 

2.7 

9.5 

29.9 

10.9 

46.3 

5.6 

64.3 

7.0 

3.8 


30.1 
4.1 
9.9 
9.0 
4.6 
7.4 

49.5 


O  « 


65.9 
75.7 
70.4 
70.5 
69.8 
59.7 
21.4 
17.3 
33.4 
23.6 
15.1 
15.6 
55.7 


54.9 
64.0 
62.5 
53.9 
60.4 
56.8 
49.9 


4.9 
4.7 
5.2 
4.8 
5.1 


3.1 
7.5 
5.0 
2.9 
1.8 
5.0 

21.2 

15.3 
2.2 

13.1 
1.6 

39.6 
1.7 


0.5 

7.4 
7.1 
4.0 
4.0 
4.5 
8.8 


3.7 
0.9 
0.3 
0.5 
0.1 


18.51 
8.0 


APPENDIX  D 

Per  Cent  op  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Stock  Feeds 


Timothy,  green 

Timothy,  green 

Timothy,  hay,  dry     . 

Mixed  hay 

Oat  straw 

Oat  straw 

Johnson  grass,  dry. . , 
Com  fodder,  leaves  . 

Com  shucks 

Alfalfa  hay 

Com,  \inground 

Com  meal   

Com,  unground 

Com,  ground 

Com  meal   

Com  meal 

Oats,  unground 

Oats,  ground 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  bran , 

Wheat  bran 

Cotton-seed  hulls. .  . . 
Cotton-seed  hulls. .  .  , 
Cotton-seed  meal. .  . , 
Cotton-seed  meal. . . . 
Cotton  seed,  raw  . . . . 
Cotton  seed,  roasted 

Potatoes,  raw , 

Potatoes,  boiled 

Sugar  beets , 

Turnips    


Steers 
Horse 


Horse 

Horse 

Swine 

Swine 

Sheep 

Cqws 

Horse 

Horse 

Swine 

Sheep 

Steers 

Cow 

Goats 

Goat 

Cow 


Digestion  coefficients 


% 
63.5 
43.5 
53.4 


50.3 
56.5 
59.8 
72.0 
58.9 
74.4 
88.4 
82.5 
89.5 
89.6 
84.6 
72.4 
75.7 
65.8 
58.7 
67.3 
35.9 
38.6 
65.9 
77.9 
66.1 
55.9 
75.7 
80.1 
94.5 
92.8 


% 

65.6 
44.1 
54.5 


52.0 
58.3 
63.6 
74.2 
60.7 
75.3 

83!4 
91.2 
90.7 

82.8 
74.1 

77.7 

61  !6 
68.6 
36.2 
39.8 
69.5 
80.0 
65.8 
56.8 
77.0 
81.2 
98.7 
96.1 


% 
32.2 
34.1 
30.3 


30.5 
26.8 
16.0 
39.5 
26.3 


49.5 

33!i 
29.2 

1713 
47.1 
27.1 
20.9 
19.8 
35.0 
43.3 


31.9 
58.6 


48.1 
21.2 
45.1 
48.0 
38.- 

kl.i 
48.4 
29.5 
72.0 
57.8 
75.6 
68.7 
86.1 
76.9 
58.3 
86.1 
82.4 
75.1 
70.2 
82.3 
24.6 

seis 

89.8 
67.8 
46.9 
44.7 
43.4 
91.3 
89.7 


% 
55.6 
42.6 
47.1 
48.0 
58.0 
57.6 
65.7 
67.5 
79.5 
46.0 


38.3 
29.4 


31.1 
14.4 
33.0 
16.1 
25.1 
27.4 
45.2 
46.8 

75!5 
65.9 


100.0 
100.0 


p  « 


% 

65.7 
47.3 
60.4 
57.0 
53.0 
53.2 
56.9 
63.0 
75.0 
69.2 
88.2 
95.7 
88.8 
94.2 
95.3 
87.1 
79.4 
86.3 
65.5 
67.2 
74.6 
40.3 
37.4 
43.8 
68.1 
49.6 
51.4 
90.4 
92.1 
99.7 
96.5 


(374) 


APPENDIX  E 


Average  Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents  in 

Stock  Feeds 


Green  Feeds. 

Corn    fodder,    entire 

plant 

Kaffir  com  fodder  . , .  . 

Sorghum  fodder 

Red  clover 

Cowpea  vines    

Alfalfa 

Dry  Fodders  and  Hay 

Corn  stover 

Kaffir  com  stover 
Sorghum  stover 
Johnson  grass.  .  . 

Red  clover 

Cowpea  vine  hay 
Alfalfa  hay  .... 
Peanut  vine  hay 
Wheat  straw  .  .  . 

Oat  straw    

Hay,  mixed  grasses 


Grains  and  Seeds. 
Com,  whole  grain  .  . 

Corn  meal    

Kaffir  corn 

Oats .  .  .. 

Wheat,  all  varieties. 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings    .  . 

Wheat  shorts    

Cotton  seed 

Cotton-seed  meal .  .  . 
Cotton-seed  hulls.  .  . 

Root  Crops. 

Irish  potatoes 

Turnips    

Carrots 

Beets    


Digestible  nutrients  in 
100  pounds 


20.7 
27.0 
30.6 
29.2 
16.4 
28.2 


59.5 
80.8 

55*' 

84.7 

89.3 

91.6 

60.0! 

90.4  1 

90.8 

87.1 


89.1 
89.1 
87.5 
89.0 
89.5 
88.1 
87.9 
88.2 
89.7 
91.5 
89.5 


21.1 

9.5 

11.4 

13.0 


1.10 
0.87 
0.70 
3.07 
1.68 
3.89 


1.98 
1.82 

'3'24 
7.38 
10.79 
10.58 
6.74 
0.37 
1.20 
5.90 


8.00 

5.78 
9.25 
10.23 
12.20 
12.80 
12.22 
11.08 
38.10 
0.30 


1.36 
0.81 
0.81 
1.21 


i* 

-£2 

S"^ 

fe 

^^ 

12.08 

0.37 

13.80 

0.43 

17.60 

0.20 

14.82 

0.69 

8.08 

0.25 

11.20 

0.41 

32.16 

0.57 

41.42 

0.98 

4i!3i 

0.82 

38.15 

1.81 

38.40 

1.54 

37.33 

1.38 

31.94 

3.03 

36.30 

0.40 

38.64 

0.76 

40.90 

1.20 

65.90 

4.60 

53.58 

1.33 

48.34 

4.18 

69.21 

1.68 

39.20 

2.70 

53.00 

3.40 

49.98 

3.88 

33.13 

18.44 

16.00 

12.60 

32.90 

1.70 

16.43 

6.46 

o.ii 

7.83 

0.22 

8.84 

0.05 

^  > 


26.076 
29.101 


36.187 
19.209 
29.798 

67.766 
84.562 

47!577 
92.324 
97.865 
94.936 
80.918 
69.894 
77.310 
93.925 


157.237 


Fertilizing    consti- 
tuents  in  100 
pounds 


116. 
124. 
154. 
111. 
136. 
131. 
160. 
152. 
69. 


022 
757 
848 
138 
996 
855 
047 
653 
839 


33.089 
13.986 
16.999 
18.904 


a 

h 

0.30 

0.15 

0.30 
0.54 
0.27 

0.09 
0.15 
0.10 

1.10 

0.29 

6.54 
2.66 

6.15 
0.52 

o.'eo 

0.46 
1.40 

6.22 
0.28 
0.27 

1.58 

0.57 

1.65 

0.69 

2.67 
2.63 

2.89 
0.95 

6.90 
0.69 

3.00 
0.25 

0.24 
0.19 

0.08 
0.09 

(375) 


APPENDIX   F 

Standard  Feeding  Rations 

Approximate    requirements  of  nutrients  for  a  day's  feeding   per  1,000 

pounds  live  weight 


a 

b 
■  p 

Digestible  nutrients 

s 
1 

1 

w 

Oxen — 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Calories 

At  rest  in  stall 

18 
22 

0.7 
1.4 

8.0 
10.0 

0.1 
0.3 

16,600 
22,500 

1:11.6 

At  light  work    

1:9.3 

At  heaw  work            

28 

2^8 

13.0 

0.8 

32J55 

1:5.0 

XX  V    xx\^c*  V  jr      »»v/xxv ■ 

Dairy  cattle,  in  milk — 

Giving  11  pounds  milk  a  day 

Giving  16.5  pounds  milk  a  day.  .  .  . 

25 

1.6 

10.0 

0.3 

22,850 

1:6.8 

27 

2.0 

11.0 

0.4 

25,850 

1:5.4 

Giving  22  pounds  milk  a  day 

29 

2.5 

13.0 

0.5 

30,950 

1:5.6 

Giving  27.5  pounds  milk  a  day.  . .  . 

32 

3.3 

13.0 

0.8 

33,700 

1:4.5 

Cattle,  growing  age — 

About  150  lbs.,  2  to  3  months     .  .  . 

23 

4.0 

13.0 

2.0 

40,050 

1:3.4 

About  300  lbs.,  3  to  6  months 

24 

3.0 

12.0 

1.0 

33,600 

1:4.7 

About  500  lbs.,  6  to  12  months  .  .  . 

27 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

29,100 

1:6.8 

About  700  lbs.,  12  to  18  months  .  . 

26 

1.8 

12.5 

0.4 

28,300 

1:7.5 

About  900  lbs.,  18  to  24  months  .  . 

26 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

26,350 

1:8.4 

Sheep— 

Heavy-fleeced  breeds 

23 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

26,400 

1:8.5 

Ewes   with  lambs 

25 

2.9 

15.0 

0.5 

35,400 

1:5.5 

Growing,  wool  breeds  — 

60  to  75  lbs.,  4  to  8  months  .... 

25 

3.2 

14.0 

0.7 

35,500 

1:4.9 

80  to  90  lbs.,  8  to  15  months  .  .  . 

23 

2.0 

11.3 

0.4 

26,000 

1:6.1 

Growing,  mutton  breeds — 

60  to  80  lbs.,  4  to  8  months 

26 

4.0 

15.0 

0.7 

38,000 

1:4.1 

100  to  150  lbs.,  8  to  15  months  . 

23 

2.2 

13.0 

0.5 

30,000 

1:6.4 

Swine — 

Growing,  breeding  stock — 

50  to  100  lbs.,  2  to  5  months  .  .  . 

40 

6.5 

25.5 

0.9 

60,000 

1:4.0 

120  to  200  lbs.,  5  to  8  months  .  . 

30 

3.8 

20.0 

0.4 

45,000 

1:5.5 

200  to  250  lbs.,  8  to  12  months  . 

26 

3.0 

17.0 

0.2 

35,000 

1:5.8 

Growing,  fattening — 

About  50  lbs.,  2  to  3  months  .  .  . 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

70,000 

1:3.7 

About  100  lbs.,  3  to  5  months  .  . 

35 

5.0 

23.0 

0.8 

55,650 

1:4.7 

About  150  lbs.,  5  to  6  months  .  . 

33 

4.3 

22.3 

0.6 

52,000 

1:5.4 

About  200  lbs.,  6  to  8  months  .  . 

30 

3.6 

20.5 

0.4 

43.500 

1:5.9 

About  275  lbs.,  9  to  12  months  . 

26 

3.0 

18.3 

0.3 

40,900 

1:6.3 

(376) 


APPENDIX   G 

Standard  Feeding  Rations 
Approximate  requirements  of  nutrients  per  day  per  head 


1 

>.SP 

Digestible  nutrients 

-03 

a 

£ 
P4 

lo 
11 

Months 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Calories 

Growing  cattle    

2-3 

150 

0.60 

2.10 

0.300 

6,288 

1:4.6 

3-6 

300 

1.00 

4.10 

0.300 

10,752 

1:4.7 

6-12 

500 

1.30 

6.80 

0.300 

16,332 

1:5.3 

12-18 

700 

1.40 

9.10 

0.280 

30,712 

1:6.8 

18-24 

850 

1.40 

10.30 

0.260 

22,859 

1:7.7 

Growing  sheep 

5-6 

56 

0.18 

0.87 

0.045 

2,143 

1:5.4 

6-8 

67 

0.17 

0.85 

0.040 

2,066 

1:5.4 

8-11 

75 

0.16 

0.85 

0.037 

2,035 

1:6.0 

11-15 

82 

0.14 

0.89 

.032 

2,050 

1:7.0 

15-20 
2-3 

85 
50 

0.12 
0.38 

0.88 

0.025 

1,956 
3,497 

1:8.0 

Growing  fat  swine 

1.50 

1:4.0 

3-5 

100 

0.50 

2.50 

5,580 

1:5.0 

5-6 

125 

0.54 

2.96 

6,510 

1:5.5 

6-8 

170 

0.58 

3.47 

7,533 

1:6.0 

8-12 

250 

0.62 

4.05 

8,686 

1:6.3 

I      CANS  -O      .-,^      OV    _/^^-.-- 


i~-\^^^^  V"-, 


Fig.  232.    Mean  annual  rainfall  of  the  United  States.    (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau.) 

(377) 


APPENDIX   H 

Annual  Rainfall  in  the  United  States 
Precipitation  (rain,  snow,  etc.)  for  the  years  given 


STATIONS 


1898 


1899  1900 


1901 


1902 


1903  1904  1905 

I 


1906  1907 


Aver- 
age 


Ft.  Smith,  Ark 

Little  Rock,  Ark  .  .  .  . 

Texarkana,  Ark 

Austin,  Tex 

Beaumont,  Tex    .  . .  . 

Amarillo,  Tex 

El  Paso,  Tex 

Sherman,  Tex 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex  .  .  . 

Denver,  Colo 

Garden  City,  Kans . . . 
Kansas  City,  Mo  .  .  .  . 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Vicksburg,  Miss 

New  Orleans,  La  ...  . 

Memphis,  Tenn 

Birmingham,  Ala.  .  .  . 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Richmond,  Va 

Washington,  D.  C. .  .  . 

New  York,  N.  Y 

Boston,  Mass 

Chicago,  111 

Fargo,  N.  D 

Helena,  Mont 

Seattle,  Wash 

Spokane,  Wash 

San  Bernardino,  Cal  . 
San  Francisco,  Cal.  .  . 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

Ardmore,  Okla 

Durant,  Okla 

Ft.  Sill,  Okla 

Mangum,  Okla 

McAlester,  Okla 


51.1 
49.5 
44.1 
28.1 


40.2 
41.3 
30.0 
31.9 


39.0 
43.5 


54.0 


22.5 
6.1 


27.4 
7.3 


24.4 
7.9 


22.7 
36.8 
33.1 
19.5 
37.9 
24.4 
8.7 


12.9 
13.0 
28.7 
50.2 
49.2 
55.6 
49.0 
48.6 
46.5 
50.5 
41.6 
37.7 
45.1 
49.8 
33.7 
16.3 
17.4 
29.3 
13.1 
5.7 
9.3 
16.1 
33.7 


10.0 
9.3 
20.6 
32.5 
34.6 
47.2 
31.0 
39.0 
48.5 
42.4 
43.3 
44.0 
42.0 
34.7 
26.4 
21.2 
11.8 
37.1 
20.1 
10.1 
23.2 
17.5 
36.2 


15.9 
15.3 
19.3 
35.8 
29.5 
53.3 
56.3 
47.4 
76.2 
58.8 
37.7 
41.2 
41.8 
44.0 
28.6 
25.5 
11.6 
36.3 
18.7 
12.5 
15.3 
11.5 
36.1 


17.4 
9.1 
18.3 
24.7 
24.8 
57.5 
57.7 
34.6 
61.6 
59.7 
42.0 
41.7 
47.0 
48.7 
24.5 
25.7 
14.7 
30.1 
16.0 
12.0 
19.7 
16.0 
23.4 


35.1 
54.0 


35.4 
40.5 


37.3 
30.9 
47.3 


46.5 
45.4 


36.5 
33.7 


16.1 


32 

63.6 

23.1 

10.1 

46.8 

13.3 

13.3 

19.6 

40.5 

38.4 

47.3 

41.6 

50.3 

54.4 

43.9 

49.3 

46.6 

47.0 

33.9 

37.5 

23.2 

10.0 

45.8 

19.2 

13.3 

19.2 

11.4 

47.6 

46.4 

46.8 


31.6  53.2 


36.2 

20.3 
11.6 
32.6 
9.8 
9.5 
20.6 
39.2 
33.8 
38.0 
57.2 
36.1 
50.5 
48.6 
47.4 
43.5 
48.6 
41.9 
28.0 
21.9 
11.3 
34.5 
16.5 
14.1 
18.3 
14.6 
26.8 
43.8 
18.7 
19.3 
46.1 


31.4 
40.1 
44.5 
37.9 
40.3 
21.3 
11.3 
28.0 
14.2 
14.0 
21.0 
47.7 
33.7 
41.6 
43.7 
42.5 
34.3 
33.1 
37.8 
40.8 
41.5 
39.6 
26.1 
20.2 
7.5 
37.7 
13.9 
10.2 
24.7 
16.3 
24.1 
32.5 
30.3 
20.1 
39.5 


42.5 
56.0 
76.7 
35.8 
62.7 
32.3 
17.8 
58.9 
17.2 
17.7 
21.0 
42.5 
38.5 
60.5 
80.0 
55.8 
50.8 
42.5 
38.4 
50.6 
44.5 
32.1 
35.3 

Vo'.i 

34.3 
16.7 
22.9 
16.2 
14.2 
40.1 
51.8 
50.1 

48.8 


42.5 

47.0 


21.5 
39.4 
24.9 
15.0 
47.8 
16.6 
16.8 
27.1 
32.8 
35.5 
51.7 
41.6 
54.3 
64.7 
53.6 
46.8 
52.9 
41.8 
40.7 
30.8 
17.7 
14.2 
36.6 
17.6 
25.8 
26.3 
21.3 
43.4 
43.5 
38.8 
39.9 
38.9 


35.6  37.5 

50.5  45.9 
.  .  .  .  45.7 
30.0;  32.8 
56.7j  50.1 
18.6i  23.9 

8.4;  10.2 

42.8 

15.1 !  14.2 

11.8  13.0 

20.9  21.7 

37.6  38.3 
41.4' 35.9 
51.6  50.4 
66.3i  52.4 


41.5 
54.6 
39.4 
48.5 
44.6 
45.2 
37.5 
35.1 

12.7 
29.1 
17.6 
17.4 
22.5 
19.2 
38.9 


45.0 
54.2 
47.3 
43.3 
44.4 
44.4 
40.3 
30.6 
22.6 
12.1 
35.1 
16.9 
14.4 
19.4 
15.8 
36.4 
43.6 
31.6 
24.4 
42.7 


(378) 


APPENDIX    I 

GLOSSARY 

Abdomen.   That  part  of  an  animal's  body  containing  the  digestive 

organs;  the  part  of  an  insect  lying  behind  the  thorax. 
Acid.   A  sour  substance,  such  as  vinegar,  lemon  juice,  etc. 
.Esthetic.  Appealing  to  the  faculties  of  taste,  as  in  form,  color,  etc. 
Agriculture.    Farming. 

Agronomy.  Pertaining  to  or  about  field  crops. 
Air-dry.  Dried  in  air  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
Albumin.  A  substance  found  in  plants  and  animals,  rich  in  nitrogen. 

The  white  of  an  egg  is  a  good  example. 
Alga.  A  green  plant  of  simple  structure,  such  as  pond  scum. 
Ameliorate.  To  improve;  make  better. 
Amendment.  Substances  which  improve  the  productiveness  of  soils 

without  being  used  directly  as  plant  foods. 
Ammonia.  A  compound  containing  nitrogen  readily  converted  into 

plant  food. 
Animal  Husbandry.   Raising  and  caring  for  animals. 
Annual.  A  plant  that  bears  seed  during  the  first  year  of  its  existence 

and  then  dies. 
Anther.  The  part  of  a  stamen  that  bears  the  pollen. 
Antiseptic.  Substances  which  kill  germs  or  microbes. 
Art.    The  skillful  and  systematic  arrangement  or  adaptation  of 

means  for  the  attainment  of  some  end. 
Ash.  The  mineral  substance  left  when  plant  or  animal  substances 

are  burned. 
Assimilation.  The  absorption  of  digested  nutrients  into   the  body 

substance.    Also  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with  carbon 

assimilation. 
Atmospheric  Nitrogen.   Free  nitrogen  of  the  air. 
Available.  Said  of  fertilizing  mineral  nutrients  in  the  soil  when  they 

are  in  a  condition  to  be  absorbed  and  used  by  plants. 
Axils.  Angle  above  the  junction  of  a  leaf-stalk  with  the  parent  stem. 
Babcock  Tester.    Instrument  used  for  determining  the  amount  of 

butter-fat  in  milk. 

(379) 


380  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

Bacteria.  A  name  applied  to  a  class  of  very  small  parasitic  plants. 

There  are  many  kinds,  most  of  which  are  beneficial  to  man. 

Some  species  are  the  cause  of  disease  in  man  and  the  higher 

animals  or  plants. 
Biennial.  A  plant  that  grows  during  the  first  year,  and  forms  seeds, 

and  dies  the  year  following,  such  as  turnips,  beets. 
Bioplasm.  The  living  substance  of  cells.  See  Protoplasm. 
Blight.    A  diseased  condition  of  plants  in  which  the  entire  plant 

or  some  part  withers  and  dries  up. 
Bordeaux  Mixture.   A  mixture  of  lime  and  copper  sulphate  (blue- 
stone),  used  to  prevent  fungus  diseases  on  plants.   It  takes  its 

name  from  Bordeaux,  France,  where  it  was  first  used. 
Botany.  The  science  that  deals  with  plants. 
Breeding.      Plant-breeding;      animal-breeding.      The    practice    of 

selecting  out  the  best  individuals  for  propagation. 
Bud  (noun).  An  undeveloped  branch. 
Bud  (verb).  To  insert  a  bud,  as  in  the  practice  of  budding. 
Bud  Variation.    Where  a  bud  produces  a  branch  that  possesses 

characteristics  different  from  the  parent  plant.    New  forms 

originating  in  this  way  are  called  sports. 
Bulb.  A  stem  with  thickened  leaves  overlapping  one  another,  as  in 

the  onion,  Easter  lily,  etc. 
Calcareous.  Limy,  or  having  the  properties  of  lime. 
Calcium.  A  chemical  element  giving  limestone  its  distinctive  prop- 
erties. 
Callus.  The  growth  of  extra  tissue  over  cut  or  wounded  places  on 

plants. 
Calyx.  The  outermost  circle  of  leaves  in  a  flower. 
Cambium.   The  growing  layer  of  cells  lying  between  the  bark  and 

the  wood. 
Cannon.  The  shank  bone  above  the  fetlock  in  the  fore  and  hind  legs 

of  the  horse. 
Capillarity.  The  phenomenon  exhibited  by  the  rise  of  liquids  in  small 

or  hair-like  tubes. 
Carbon.   The  principal  chemical  element  in  plants.    Charcoal  and 

graphite  are  forms  of  carbon. 
Carbon  Assimilation.   The  process  carried  on  in  the  cells  of  green 

plants  in  assimilating  the  carbon  of  the  carbon  dioxid  of  the  air. 
Carbon  Dioxid.    A  gas  formed  whenever  substances  containing 

carbon  are  bnmed. 


Appendix  I  381 

Carbon  Bisulphide.    A  chemical  compound  of  carbon  and  sulphur. 

A  heavy  inflammable  liquid  used  to  kill  insects  in  stored  grain . 
Carbohydrate.   Compound  of  carbon  with  the  elements  oxygen  and 

hydrogen  in  the  same  proportion  that  they  occur  in  water. 

Examples  are  sugar,  starch,  wood  fiber,  etc.    They  form  the 

largest  part  of  plant  substance. 
Carnivorous.    Feeding  on  flesh. 
Casein.    Milk  curd,  the  most  important  albuminoid  in  milk  and 

cheese. 
Catch  Crop.   A  crop  grown  during  an  interval  between  the  harvest 

of  regular  crops. 
Cellulose.  The  principal  carbohydrate  in  wood  fibers,  such  as  cotton, 

flax,  wood  pulp. 
Cereal.   The  name  given  to  the  grasses  cultivated  for  their  grain, 

as  corn,  wheat,  kaffir  corn. 
Chemistry.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  properties  of  the  elements 

and  their  compounds. 
Chlorophyll.    The  green  coloring-matter  to  which  plants  owe  their 

characteristic  color. 
Cion.  See  Scion. 
Climatology.    The  knowledge  and  science  of  weather.    It  includes 

the  science  of  weather  (local  climate)  and  meteorology. 
Coming  True.  Reproducing  the  variety  characters. 
Compost.  Rotted  organic  matter,  plant  or  animal. 
Concentrates.  A  term  used  to  designate  feeding  substances  that  are 

almost  wholly  digestible,  as  corn,  bran,  mill  products. 
Contagious.    A  disease  is  said  to  be  contagious  when  it  may  be 

transmitted  from  one  individual  to  another. 
Corolla.  The  second  circle  of  leaf-like  parts  of  a  flower.  The  corolla 

is  usually  colored. 
Cotyledons.  The  primary  or  seed-leaves  of  an  embryo  plant. 
Cover  Crop.   A  catch-crop  designed  to  cover  the  ground  during  the 

fall,  winter  or  spring  to  prevent  washing. 
Cross.  The  individual  resulting  from  breeding  two  varieties  together. 
Cross-Pollination.  The  pollination  of  a  flower  by  poUen  from  another 

plant. 
Croup  (crop).  The  top  of  the  hips. 
Cutting*    A  part  of  a  stem  or  root   put   into   the   soil   or   other 

medium    with    the    intention  that   it   shall    grow    and   make 

another  plant. 


382  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

Dependent  Plants.    Plants  that  do  not  have  the  power  of  making 

their  own  food  products;  i.  e.,  incapable  of  carbon  assimilation. 
Digestion.    The  process  of  converting  the  insoluble  substances  of 

foods  into  soluble  materials,  preparatory  to  absorption  into 

the  blood. 
Drainage.  The  process  by  which  surplus  water  is  removed  from  the 

soil,  either  by  ditches,  terraces  or  tiles. 
Ecology.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  inter-relationships  between 

animals  and  plants,  and  their  environments.    The  study  of  the 

modes  and  conditions  of  life  of  plants  and  animals, — a  very 

important  phase  of  agricultural  science. 
Element.   An  original  form  of  matter.   An  ultimate  form  of  matter 

which  can  not  be  further  split  up  by  any  known  means. 
Emulsion.  A  more  or  less  permanent  and  complete  mixture  of  oila 

or  fats  and  water.   Fresh  milk  is  an  excellent  illustration. 
Endosperm.  Reserve  food  in  seeds  stored  outside  of  the  embryo. 
Energy.    Power;  force.    Every  movement  of,  or  change  of   body, 

expends  energy.    The  energy  of  sunlight  may  be  expressed  in 

heat,  or  other  form  of  energy. 
Ensilage.  See  Silage. 
Entomology.  Science  of  insects. 

Erosion.    Wearing  away.    Denudation,  as  of  rocks  or  soils. 
Ether  Extract.  A  term  used  in  feed  analyses  to  describe  the  substances 

removed  by  ether — usually  oils. 
Evolution.   The  doctrine  that  present  forms  of  plants  and  animals 

are  descended  from  previous  forms.   A  theory  of  the  origin  of 

forms  of  living  organisms. 
Farming.  The  practice  of  raising  crops  and  animals. 
Farmstead.  A  farm  home  or  establishment. 
Fecundation.  The  union  of  male  and  female  cells. 
Fermentation.    A  chemical  change  produced  by  bacteria,  yeast, 

etc.  Example,  souring  of  milk.    The  decay  of  any  organic 

substance  is  due  to  some  form  of  fermentation. 
Fertilization.   Used  in  the  same  sense  as  fecundation.   Also  used  to 

designate  the  act  of  adding  fertilizers. 
Fertilizer.  A  substance  added  to  the  soil  to  improve  its  productive- 
ness, as  compost.   Some  fertilizers  are  known  as  amendments, 

which  see. 
Fetlock.  The  long-haired  cushion  on  the  back  side  of  a  horse's  leg, 

just  above  the  hoof. 


Appendix  I  383 

Fiber.  Any  fine  thread-like  substance,  as  the  wood  fibers  of  stems, 
cotton  fiber,  etc. 

Fibro-vascular  Bundle.  The  bundles  of  wood  fibers  and  water- 
conducting  vessels  in  the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants. 

Flocculate.  To  make  granular  by  the  union  of  fine  particles  into 
aggregates. 

Floral  Envelope.   The  collective  term  for  the  calyx  and  corolla. 

Fodder.   Any  coarse  dry  food  for  animals. 

Forage.  Plants  fed  to  animals  in  their  natural  condition;  or  merely 
dried,  i.  e.,  without  preparation. 

Formalin.  A  solution  in  water  of  the  gas  known  as  formaldehyde. 
It  is  used  to  destroy  bacteria,  fungi,  etc. 

Function.  The  particular  use  of  any  organ  or  part. 

Fungicide.  Substances  used  to  kill  fungi,  as  compounds  of  copper. 

Geology.  The  science  that  deals  with  the  formation  and  properties 
of  the  earth. 

Germ.  See  Microbe;  bacteria.  Also  applied  to  the  embryo  of  seeds, 
as  in  corn. 

Germinate.    To  sprout;  to  grow  from  a  seed  or  spore. 

Girdle.  To  make  a  cut  or  groove  around  a  tree  or  branch. 

Glucose.  A  kind  of  sugar,  very  common  in  plants.  The  sugar 
from  grapes  is  glucose,  but  the  sugar  from  cane  and  beets 
is  not.  Glucose  is  formed  from  starch  in  the  manufacture  of 
syrups. 

Gluten.  A  form  of  protein  found  in  plants. 

Grafting.  The  practice  of  inserting  a  cion  into  a  plant  or  root  that 
it  may  grow. 

Growth.  The  increase  in  size  or  substance  of  a  plant  or  animal. 

Gypsum.    Native  form  of  Plaster  of  Paris;  sulphate  of  lime. 

Herbivorous.  Feeding  on  plants. 

Heredity.  The  phenomenon  noted  in  the  resemblance  of  offspring 
to  parents. 

Hibernating.  Passing  the  winter  or  dormant  season  in  an  inactive 
or  torpid  state  in  confined  quarters,  said  of  animals. 

Hock.  The  joint  in  the  hind  legs  of  quadrupeds  corresponding  to 
the  heel  of  man. 

Horticulture.  Pertaining  to  the  growing  of  fruits,  vegetables,  flow- 
ers, and  other  ornamental  plants. 

Host.  The  plant  or  animal  upon  which  a  fungus  or  insect  lives. 


384  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

Humus  (or  humous).    Decayed  or  rotten  remains  of  plants  and 

animals  found  in  the  soil. 
Husbandry.  Farming. 
Hybrid.    The  progeny  resulting  from  the  crossing  of  two  kinds  of 

plants  or  animals,  either  varieties  or  species.    A  synonym  of 

cross. 
Hydrogen.  A  chemical  element.   It  is  present  in  water  and  all  living 

substances. 
Hygroscopic.  Holding  moisture  as  a  film  on  the  surface. 
Hypha  (plural,  hyphse).  The  separate  threads  of  the  plant  body  of 

fungi. 
Inoculate.  To  infect  with  a  disease. 
Inorganic.  Matter  which  has  not  been  elaborated  into  plant  or  animal 

substance. 
Insectivorous.  Eating  insects. 
Insecticide.  A  poison  used  to  kill  insects. 
Internode.  The  space  between  two  nodes  of  a  stem. 
Inter-tillage.   Tillage  between  plants. 
Kainit.   A  salt  of  potash  used  in  making  fertilizers. 
Kernel.  A  single  seed,  as  a  grain  of  corn,  wheat,  etc. 
Kerosene  Emulsion.  See  Appendix  B. 
Larva  (plural,  larvae).    The  worm-like   stage   in  the   development 

of  insects. 
Layer.  A  part  of  a  plant  that  has  been  bent  down  and  covered  with 

soil  to  stimulate  the  formation  of  roots.    After  the  roots  are 

formed,  it  is  separated  from  the  parent  plant. 
Legume.  A  plant  belonging  to  the  same  family  of  plants  as  the  pea, 

bean,  alfalfa,  clovers,  etc. 
Lichen.    A  kind  of  fungus  plant  that  grows  associated  with  algae. 

Very  common  on  stones  and  bark  of  trees 
Loam.    An  earthy  mi.tture  of  sand  and  clay,  with  some  organic 

matter. 
Magnesia.  A  substance  containing  the  chemical  element  magnesium. 

It  is  similar  to  lime. 
Microbe.   A  general  term  applied  to  all  plants  or  animals  that  are 

so  small  that  they  may  be  seen  only  by  aid  of  the  microscope. 
Mildew.  A  cobwebby  fungus  on  the  surface  of  diseased  or  decaying 

things. 
Mold,  or  Mould.  Used  in  the  same  way  as  mildew.  Mold  occurs  only 
on  dead  substances.    Also  a  soil  with  much  humus. 


Appendix  I  385 

Mulch.  A  loose  covering  of  straw,  leaves,  or  soil,  to  retard  evapora- 
tion from  the  soil. 

Nitrate.  A  compound  having  nitrogen  trioxide  (NO3)  combined  with 
a  basic  mineral  substance;  a  salt  of  nitric  acid,  as  Sodium  nitrate. 

Nitrification.  The  changing  of  nitrogen  into  nitrates. 

Nitrite.  A  compound  in  which  nitrogen  dioxide  (NO2)  is  combined 
with  a  base. 

Nitrogen.  A  gaseous  chemical  element  composing  79  per  cent  of  the 
air.  It  forms  a  constituent  of  the  more  expensive  mineral  plant- 
foods.  A  constituent  of  ammonia,  albumen,  proteids  and  all 
living  substances. 

Node.  The  place  on  a  stem  where  the  leaves  and  branches  originate. 

Nutrient.    A  substance  which  serves  as  a  food. 

Organic.  Of  or  belonging  to  living  things.  Organic  matter  has  been, 
formed  from  simple  chemical  compounds  and  exists  in  nature 
only  as  formed  by  animals  or  plants. 

Osmosis.  The  movement  of  a  liquid  through  a  membrane. 

Ovary.  The  part  of  the  pistil  that  bears  the  seeds. 

Ovule.  The  parts  inside  of  the  ovary  that  grow  into  seeds. 

Ornithology.   Science  of  birds. 

Oxygen.  A  gaseous  element  composing  about  one-fifth  of  the  air. 

Oxidation.  Combining  with  oxygen,  as  in  the  rusting  of  iron,  burn- 
ing of  wood. 

Parasite.  Dependent  plants  or  animals  drawing  their  food  from  other 
living  plants  or  animals.  Compare  with  Saprophyte. 

Pedigree.  A  record  of  one's  ancestors. 

Perennial.  Plants  that  live  from  year  to  year,  as  trees. 

Petal.  Parts  of  the  corolla  of  flowers. 

Phloem.  That  part  of  a  stem  through  which  the  reserve  food  moves. 
In  plants  with  netted  veined  leaves  it  is  just  outside  of  the 
cambium. 

Phosphate.  A  salt  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  bones  of  animals  and  the 
shells  of  oysters  are  composed  of  phosphates. 

Photosynthesis.   Same  as  Carbon  Assimilation. 

Physiology.  The  science  that  treats  of  the  life  processes.  It  treats 
of  organs  and  their  uses. 

Pistil.  The  part  of  a  flower  containing  the  embryo  seeds. 

Plumule.  The  shoot  end  of  an  embryo  plant. 

Pollination.  The  act  of  carrying  pollen  from  anther  to  stigma.  It 
is  usually  done  by  the  wind  or  insects. 


386  Elementary  Principles  of  Agriculture 

Pollen.    The  powdery  mass  borne  by  anthers.    It  is  necessary  for 

the  formation  of  seeds. 
Potash.   A  substance  containing  potassium. 
Predaceous.    Living  by  preying,  or  pillaging.    Said  of  insects  that 

attack  and  destroy  other  kinds. 
Protoplasm.  The  living  substance.   "The  physical  basis  of  life." 
Proteids.    Organic  substances  rich  in  nitrogen. 
Ration.  A  daily  allowance  of  food  for  an  animal. 
Rotation  (of  crops).   A  systematic  order  of  succession  of  crops  on 

the  same  land. 
Roughage.   Dry,  coarse  fodders. 
Sap.  The  watery  solutions  in  plants. 
Saprophyte.  Living  on  dead  organic  matter. 

Scion.  A  shoot,  sprout  or  branch  taken  to  graft  onto  another  plant. 
Science.    "Systematized  common  sense."    Knowledge  gained  and 

verified  by  exact  observation  and  correct  thinking.  Knowledge 

deals  with  simple  facts,  without  reference  to  inter-relations. 

Art  refers  to  something  to  be  done.   Science  to  something  to 

be  known  and  understood. 
Sepals.  The  segments  of  the  calyx. 

Silage.  Green  feed  cut  up  and  preserved  without  loss  of  succulence. 
Silo.   A  place  for  keeping  silage. 
Smut.   A  term  to  designate  the  fungi  that  produce  the  blasting  of 

the  fruits  and  leaves  of  plants,  as  oat  smut: 
Soil.  That  part  of  the  earth's  crust  permeated  by  the  roots  of  plants. 
Soiling.  The  practice  of  feeding  green  plants  in  the  stables. 
Spiracle.   Breathing  pores  of  an  insect's  body. 
Spore.  The  one-celled  reproductive  body  of  the  lower  plants. 
Sport.  A  marked  variation  from  the  parents  that  appears  suddenly. 
Stamen.  The  part  of  a  flower  bearing  the  anthers  with  pollen 
Starch.  A  carbohydrate  found  in  plants 

Sterilize.  To  destroy  ail  the  germs  or  spores  in  or  on  anything. 
Sterile  Plants.  Plants  that  do  not  set  seed. 
Stigma.  The  part  of  a  pistil  that  receives  the  pollen. 
Stover.  Dry  stalks  of  corn  from  which  the  ears  have  been  harvested. 
Stoma  (plural,  stomata).    The   minute  openings  in  the  epidermis 

of  leaves. 
Subsoil.  The  layer  of  soil  below  the  surface  layer  of  cultivated  soils. 
Superphosphate.   Phosphates  that  have  been  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid  to  render  the  phosphates  soluble. 


Appendix  I 


387 


Thorax.  The  middle  part  of  an  insect's  body. 

Tillage.  The  act  of  preparing  the  ground  to  receive  the  seed  and  the 

cultivation  of  the  plants. 
Tuber.  A  thickened  underground  stem,  as  an  Irish  potato. 
Tubercle.  A  small  wart-like  growth  on  the  roots  of  legumes,  caused 

by  the  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria. 
Variety.  A  kind  or  sort  of  plant. 
Viable.  Capable  of  germinating.  Having  life. 
Vigor.    Referring  to  the  rapidity  of  growth,  without  reference  to 

hardiness. 
Vital.  Of,  or  pertaining  to  living  things. 

Water-Table.   The  line  of  free  or  gravitational  water  in  the  soil. 
Weathering.  The  action  of  moisture,  air,  frost,  upon  rocks,  etc. 
Weed.  A  plant  where  it  is  not  wanted. 
Wilt.  Used  synonymous  with  blight. 
Zoology.  The  science  that  treats  of  animals. 


"look  out" 


INDEX 


Numbers  refer  to  paragraph  numbers 


Alfalfa.  432.  433 
Apple.  537,  541.  547. 
Absorption  by  Root-Hairs,  22. 
Absorption  by  Soils,  99. 
Absorption  of  Water  by  Seeds,  24. 
Absorption  of  Water  by  Soils,  24. 
Animal  Body,  Nutrition  of,  322. 
Animals,  Destroy  Insects,  257. 
Animal  Husbandry,  258,  261. 
Animals,  Shelter  for,  347. 

Babcock  Test,  351. 

Balanced  Rations,  Economy  of,  335. 

Barley  461. 

Beet  Breeds,  268. 

Birds,  249. 

Birds,  Beneficial,  251. 

Birds,  Feeding  Habits,  254,  255. 

Birds,  Food  of,  250. 

Blackberry,  177,  192,  524,  529. 

Bordeaux  Mixture,  Appendix  B 

Broom  Corn,  488. 

Butter,  Judging,  366. 

Callus,  Growth  of,  59,  64. 
Cambium,  58. 

Carbon  Assimilation,  47,  48,  50. 
Carbon  Dioxid,  29. 
Capillary  Attraction,  71. 
Capillary  Water,  100. 
Catch-Crops,  144. 
Caterpillar,  226,  237. 
Cells,  13. 

Cellular  Structure,  13. 
Cell- Wall,  8. 
Chickens,  Breeds,  314. 
Chili  Saltpeter,  121. 
Churning,  365. 
Clarification  of  Milk,  368. 
Clay,  89. 

Climate  and  Crops,  415. 
Clover,  431,  434. 
Coldframes,  36. 
Composition  of  Plants,  45. 
Compost,  123. 

Compounds  of  Elements,  40. 
Concentrated  Foods,  339. 
Corn,  439. 
Corn  Chapter,  462. 
Cotton  Chapter  on,  491 
Cover  Crops,  107,  144,  431,  434. 
Cowpeas.  436. 
Creaming,  358. 
Cross-Fertilization,  173. 
Cultivation,  Effect  of,  214,  490,  498, 
600. 


Cultivation  of  Soil.     (See  Tilth.) 
Currant,  524,  531. 
Cuttage,  195. 

Dairy  Cows,  How  Valued,  352. 

Dairy  Products,  Sanitary,  359. 

Dairying,  348. 

Denitrification,  129. 

Dependent  Plants,  12. 

Dewberry,  531. 

Digestible  Nutrients,  Ratio  of,  333. 

Digestibility  of  Feeds,  331. 

Disease,  Due  to  Fungi,  215. 

Disease,  Due  to  Insects,  146. 

Domesticated  Plants,  202. 

Drainage,  107. 

Drainage  Waters,  Plant  Food  in,  112. 

Drouth,  136. 

Drouth  Limit,  102. 

Drouth-Resistant,  55,  481,  494. 

Dry-Land  Farming,  97. 

Eggs,  Preserving,  313. 

Elements,  39. 

Elements,  Essential,  43,  109,  138. 

Elements,  in  Plants,  41. 

Elements,  Non-Essential,  44. 

Environment,  6. 

Epidermis,  47. 

Farm  Conditions,  Changes  in,  398. 

Farm  Machinery,  391,  394. 

Farming,  419. 

Feed,  Amount  of,  338,  479. 

Feeding  Rations,  Standard,  Appen- 
dixes F  and  G. 

Feeding  Stuffs,  Composition  of,  Ap- 
pendix C. 

Feeds,  Digestibility  of,  331,  487. 

Feeds,  Nutrients  in,  328. 

Feeds,  Preparation  of,  342. 

Fertilization  of  Flowers,  169. 

Fertilizer,  Quantity  of,  111. 

Fertilizer,  110, 

Fertilizers,  Kinds  of,  118. 

FertiUzing,  132,  430,  503. 

Fibro-Vascular  Bundles,  57. 

Flower-Buds,  156. 

Flower-Buds,  Formation  of,  158,  159. 

Flower-Buds,  To  Distinguish,  157,  538, 

Flowers,  Names  of  Parts,  165. 

Flowers,  Use  of  Parts,  167. 

Forcing,  513. 

Forest,  Conserving  of,  381,  385, 

Frost  Records,  522. 

Fungi,  9- 


(388) 


Index 


389 


Fungi,  Food  of,  8,  9a,  216, 
Fungicides,  219.    Appendix  B. 
Fungus  Diseases,  215,  451,  533,  543. 

Gardens,  Individual,  379. 

Garden  Plans,  379,  517. 

Germinating  Seeds,  38,  441. 

Germination,  15,  20,  27,  34. 

Germination,  Effect  of  Air,  29. 

Germination,  Temperature,  26,  27,  28. 

Germination,  Time  of,  35,  523. 

Girdling,  Death  by,  60,  61. 

Goats,  306. 

Graftage,  198,  199. 

Grains,  438,  442,  486. 

Grape,  532. 

Grape-Vines,  Pruning  of,  189. 

Green-Manuring,  131,  449. 

Green  Plants,  Food  of,  11,  12,  48. 

Growth  of  Flower,  57. 

Growth  of  Fruits,  170. 

Growth  of  Root,  57,  67,  82. 

Growth  of  Stem,  57. 

Guano,  122. 

Hay,  437. 

Hard-Pan,  87. 

Harvesting  Machinery-,  393. 

Hellriegel,  80. 

Hogs,  Types  and  Breeds,  294. 

Home  Grounds,  371. 

Home-Lot  Planning,  372. 

Horse,  Diagram  Showing  Points,  292. 

Horses,  277. 

Hotbeds,  36,  513. 

Humus,  91. 

Hybridization,  211. 

Hygroscopic  Water,  100, 

Hyphffi,  216. 

Incubation,  309. 
Insecticides,  Appendix  B. 
Insects,  Injurious,  243-248,  507. 
Insects,  Parasitic,  248. 
Insects,  Useful,  243-248. 

Kerosene  Preparations,  Appendix  B. 

Landscape,  369. 

Layerage,  194. 

Leaf  Development,  149, 

Leaves,  Work  of,  46. 

Legumes  Enrich  the  Soil,  126,  428. 

Legumes,  Tubercles  of,  125,  429. 

Lime  in  Soils,  139. 

Lime-Water,  92. 

Machinery,  Farm,  394. 
Machinery,  Influence  of,  397. 
Manure,  Effect  of,  115. 
Milk,  Care  in  Keeping,  364. 
Milk,  Changes  in,  356. 
Milk,  Compo^tion  of,  354. 
Milk,  Flow  of,  355. 
Mineral  Food,  112. 


Mineral  Matter  in  Soil  Waters,  1 12, 
Mulching,  95,  96,  97,  467, 
Mulching  Strawberries,  527, 

Natural  Selection,  205, 

Natural  Science,  3. 

Nitrogen,  Fixation  of,  124,  429. 

Nitrogen,  Loss  from  Soil,  130. 

Nitrification,  127, 

Nitrification,  Promoting,  128,.  467. 

Node,  57,  154. 

Nutrients,  Digestibility  of,  332. 

Nutrients  in  Feeds,  328. 

Nutrition  of  Animal  Body,  322. 

Nutritive  Substances,  323. 

Oats,  133a,  213a,  457, 
Orchard  Fruits,  534, 
Orchard  Location,  537, 
Orchard  Spraying,  543,  544. 

Palatabilitv  of  Food,  340. 

Parasites,  216. 

Pasturage,  346, 

Pasteurization,  367. 

Pastures,  420,  427. 

Peach,  544, 

Peanut,  435. 

Perennial,  62. 

Phloem,  57,  60. 

Plant,  Soil  Relations,  65. 

Plant-Food,  How  Absorbed,  77. 

Plant-Food,  Kinds  of,  8. 

Plant-Food,  Removed  from  S.oil,  116. 

Plant  Substances,  37,  39. 

Plant  Substances,  Increase  of,  46. 

Planting,  Depth  of,  .35. 

Planting  Seeds,  32,  33. 

Plants  Dry  the  Soil,  98. 

Plants,  Structure  of,  13. 

Plants,  Variation  in,  203. 

Plow,  Webster's,  392. 

Plowing,  73,  96,  105,  107,  140. 

Plowing,  Time  of,  445,  448,  501. 

Pollination,  171,  440. 

Pollination,  Importance  of,  171,  528. 

Potato,  521. 

Poultry,  307. 

Poultry,  Care  of  Young,  320.     • 

Poultry,  P"'eeding,  311. 

Poultry,  Improving,  312. 

Propagation,  Methods  of,  190-200. 

Propagation  of  Fungi,  217. 

Protoplasm,  8,  14,  42. 

Proteids  in  Plants,  17. 

Pruning,  174-178. 

Pruning  Orchard  Trees,  188. 

Pruning,  Reasons  for,  179-185,  544. 

Rain,  104,  466, 

Rain,  Absorption  of,  99,  102. 

Rainfall,  Appendix  H, 

Raspberry,  529, 

Ratios,  Application  of,  334, 

Rations,  Kinds  of,  336, 


390 


Index 


Records  of  Performance,  256,  474. 
Reserve  Food,  17,  37,  38,  160. 
Reserve  Food,  in  Stems,  61,  537. 
Reserve  Food,  Movement  of,  60. 
Reserve  Food,  Storage  of,  64. 
Rice,  459. 
Roads,  399. 

Roads,  When  to  Build,  402. 
Root  Growth,  23,  68,  441,  467. 
Root  Growth,  77-80;  Amount  of,  77. 
Root-Hairs,  21,  22,  76. 
Roots,  48,  61. 
Rotation,  142,  449. 
Rotation,  Advantages  of,  146. 
Roughage,  339. 
Rye,  461. 

Sand,  88. 

Sand  Cultures,  109. 

Sanitary  Dairy  Products,  359. 

Saprophyte,  216. 

School  Gardens,  377,  380. 

School  Garden,  Laying  Out,  378. 

Seed  Selection,  213,  414,  442. 

Seed-Testing,  31,  443,  475. 

Seedage,  32,  33,  191,  458,  490,  502. 

Seedlings,  of  Hybrids,  212. 

Seeds,  15. 

Seeds,  Germination,  15,  441. 

Seeds,  Growth  of,  170. 

Seeds  of  Corn,  18,  469. 

Seeds  of  Cotton,  19,  505. 

Seeds,  Structure  of,  16. 

Seeds,  Reserve  Food,  17. 

Selecting  Animals,  263. 

Selecting  Seed,  213,  414,  471,  495. 

Self-Fertilization,  172. 

Sheep  and  Goats,  302. 

Silage,  355,  479. 

Smut  of  Grain,  222,  451. 

Soil,  Change  in,  113. 

Soil  Classification,  85,  87,  93c. 

Soil,  Humus  in,  91,  449. 

Soil,  Ideal,  69. 

Soil,  Improving,  70,  116. 

Soil  Management,  71,  84. 

Soil  Moisture,  150,  445. 

Soil  Mulch,  95. 

Soil  Temperatures,  94. 

Soil  Tests,  117,  133. 

Soil,  Use  to  Plants,  66. 

Soils,  Chemical  Analysis  of,  117. 

Soils,  Exhaustion  of,  117. 

Soils  Need  Fertilizer,  117. 

Soils,  Productiveness  of,  134. 

Soils,  Rise  of  Water  in,  95b. 

Soils,  Fertility  of,  134. 

Sorghum,  480. 


Split-log  Drag,  411. 

Spraying,  231,  543. 

Spore,  216. 

Sprays,  How  Used,  220. 

Stems,  56.    Growth  of,  57. 

Stems,  Movement  of  Food  in,  60. 

Stems,  Movement  of  Water  in,  60. 

Sterile  Plants,  162. 

Stock  Feeds,  Appendix  D  and  E. 

Stawberry,  527. 

Subsoil,  87. 

Temperature  of  Air,  153. 

Temperature  of  Soils,  94,  525. 

Terracing,  107. 

Texture  of  Soils,  74,  132. 

Thinning  Fruit,  183. 

Tillage,  Depth  of,  81,  448,  449. 

Tillage  Tools,  392. 

Tilth,  75,  413. 

Tilth,  Means  of,  73. 

Tilth  of  Soil,  70. 

Tools,  Tillage,  392. 

Transplanting,  201. 

Transportation,  403,  404. 

Tubercles,  125. 

Turkeys,  319. 

Variation  in  Plants,  203,  214. 
Variation,  Fixation  of,  204. 
Variations,  How  Fixed,  204. 
Variations,  How  Perpetuated,  208  . 
Variations  Not  Permanent,  207. 
Variety  Defined,  212. 
Vegetable,  Classes  of,    514  to  516. 

Water,  Absorption  by  Plants,  66. 

Water-Cultures,  109. 

Water  in  Irrigation,  103. 

Water,  in  Plants,  51-53. 

Water,  in  Soil,  89,  160, 

Water,  Favorable  to  Growth,  102  . 

Water,  Loss  of,  by  Plants,  47,-  54  ,465. 

Water,  Movement  in  Plants,  57. 

Water,  Needed  by  Crops,  106. 

Water,  Needed  by  Plants,  47,  51,  465, 

457. 
Water,  Percolation  of,  100. 
Water  Storage,  105. 
Water  Table,  100. 
Weathering  of  Soil,  73. 
Weeds,  62,  306,  427. 
Wheat,  133a,  438,  449,  452. 
Windbreaks,  390. 
Woodlot,  388. 
Wool,  303. 
Wounds  on  Plants,  59. 


«  v^      ^J  J C-C^^ 


3CI29 


CD 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  UBRARY 


